The people of Spain had long been misgoverned, impoverished, and oppressed when the last king of the House of Austria died and left the War of Succession as a legacy to his subjects.
The descendant of Maria Teresa, sister of Charles II. and wife of Louis XIV. of France, would have had the best right if her marriage had not been allowed on condition of the most solemn renunciation of the crown of Spain for the offspring of it. The next heir was the Emperor Leopold I., descended from a sister of Philip IV. of Spain, the father of Charles II. He resigned his claim to his second son, the Archduke Charles. Strongly in favour of the Austrian claim, the unhappy King was forced by priestly threats on his deathbed to sign a will declaring Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. and Maria Teresa, to be heir to the Spanish monarchy. Philip was then seventeen. The Archduke Charles was fifteen.
Louis XIV. was strictly pledged to the Governments of England and Holland not to allow his grandson to succeed. In February 1701, in defiance of this solemn compact, Philip was sent to Madrid and proclaimed as Philip V. Castille acknowledged him. Aragon, Catalonia, and the Balearic Islands declared for the Archduke Charles as Charles III. He was supported by England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy, and the Empire. War was declared on May 15, 1702, and the War of the Spanish Succession commenced. In March 1704 Charles III. arrived at Lisbon with four thousand Dutch and eight thousand English troops, where he was joined by Don Juan Henriquez, Admiral of Castille, one of the greatest of the Spanish nobles. On August 3 Gibraltar was taken, and garrisoned with two thousand men, the Prince of Hesse Darmstadt being the first Governor. Charles III. then proceeded to Barcelona, the almost impregnable castle of Monjuich having previously been captured by the Earl of Peterborough. Amidst great rejoicings Charles made his public entry on October 23, 1705. Peterborough entered Valencia in triumph on February 4, 1706, and Majorca declared for King Charles.
General Stanhope was appointed Envoy Extraordinary to King Charles and sent out in command of reinforcements. He was a grandson of the first Earl of Chesterfield and son of Alexander Stanhope, who was Ambassador at Madrid in the time of Charles II. Having passed his youth in his father’s house, he was well acquainted with Spanish and with the feelings of the people. He learnt the art of war under Marlborough.
The disastrous battle of Almanza was fought in April 1707, and for some time the cause of King Charles seemed almost hopeless. The Duke of Berwick entered Valencia and conquered Aragon, the French claimant, Philip, abolishing all its provincial privileges; while General Stanhope was reduced to a strictly defensive system. King Charles’s base was the east coast of Spain and the Mediterranean Sea. The English fleet was therefore of the utmost importance, and it became very urgent that the ships should remain out, instead of returning home for the winter. But, although Majorca was for Charles, the harbour of Port Mahon was still occupied by French and Spanish troops for Philip.
Stanhope, with his German colleague Staremburg, after several weeks of skilful but desultory manœuvres, obliged the French army to retreat from Tortosa, to which place the enemy had advanced. In August of the same year, 1707, Admiral Leake with the British fleet took Cagliari and secured the island of Sardinia for King Charles. But the most important enterprise was the capture of Minorca with its excellent harbour.
The Duke of Marlborough wrote to General Stanhope saying: ‘I am so entirely convinced that nothing can be done effectually without the fleet, that I conjure you, if possible, to take Port Mahon.’ Lord Godolphin sent out instructions to the same effect, which reached Stanhope when he was encamped at Cervera with Marshal Staremburg, at the close of the campaign against the French.
Stanhope immediately set out for Barcelona in pursuance of his instructions, but few men could be spared for the enterprise. Fortunately, Charles was fully alive to its great importance. Admiral Sir John Leake was still off Sardinia with the bulk of the fleet. There were, however, six men-of-war at Barcelona; but some of the captains hesitated to take any responsibility. The two who supported the General were his brother Philip of the Milford, and Trevanion of the York.
Stanhope forced their hands by actually embarking in some transports the troops he had been able to collect, and announcing his intention of proceeding at once to Majorca, there to await reinforcements. This made all the captains resolve to accompany him. One of the ships (the Milford) was commanded by the General’s brother, Captain Philip Stanhope, and the two brothers sailed together. The force consisted of 1,200 British troops, including marines, 600 Portuguese, and the rest Spanish. The General wrote to Sir John Leake, who had just reduced Sardinia to obedience to Charles, sending a copy of the letter from Lord Godolphin, and entreating him to co-operate.
Sir John Leake was about to return with the Beet to England for the winter, leaving a squadron to guard the Portuguese coast. He, however, left Pula, near Cagliari, with the fleet on August 18, in compliance with General Stanhope’s request, and arrived off Port Mahon on the 25th. He cruised off the island until September 14, when Stanhope arrived on board the Milford, the transports following on October 3.
Stanhope’s plan was to land at once and lay siege to the castle of San Felipe. Measures were accordingly arranged with the Admiral, who lent all the marines and guns that could be spared. There were forty-two guns and thirteen mortars. A spot was selected about two miles from the castle to the south-west, and the troops were landed. All the inhabitants received them joyfully, declaring for King Charles; and the magistrates of Mahon came and delivered up the keys of their city. On the 7th the Dunkirk, Centurion, and York were anchored near the south-east point of the island, to cover the landing of the heavy guns. This was a service of great difficulty, for the only place for landing them was in a creek within half gunshot of the enemy’s batteries. Nevertheless it was attempted that very evening, and effected with little loss. The country was found to be rocky and without roads, and the beasts of burden that could be obtained were so few that it was twelve days before the guns could be got into position ready to commence the attack.
On the 8th the fleet, consisting of fifteen sail of the line, under the command of Sir John Leake, sailed for England. The Admiral had lent the General as many marines as could possibly be spared, and supplied him with ammunition and some provisions. A squadron of seventeen sail was left off Port Mahon, under the command of Sir Edward Whitaker, the hero of Gibraltar, to assist in the reduction of the castle of San Felipe.
Two ships, the Dunkirk (Captain Butler) and Centurion (Captain Fairborn), were detached to take possession of the castle and harbour of Fornelle, on the north coast of the island. The Dunkirk arrived two hours before the Centurion, and opened a heavy fire, which was returned with some effect; but when the Centurion also hove in sight, the garrison surrendered as prisoners of war. All the transports and bomb-vessels were then sent to Fornelle creek, having previously had no secure place to ride in.
On the 28th General Stanhope opened a battery of nine guns on two towers flanking an outer line, which the garrison of San Felipe had lately thrown up, beating them down and making some breaches in the connecting walls. This was not difficult, as the works had been hastily run up with loose stones. Brigadier Lane was stationed on the right with two battalions. Captain Philip Stanhope commanded the marines. Some of Wade’s men entered a breach in the wall without orders, and as soon as he saw their advance he followed with all his men. Philip Stanhope led on his marines, and there was a general advance, the garrison, after a short resistance, abandoning all the outworks and retreating into the castle. Next morning the enemy commenced a parley, which was followed by their capitulation in the afternoon. They could have held out for a long time. A hundred pieces of ordnance were found in the castle, three thousand barrels of powder, and all things necessary for a long defence. The victory was dearly bought with the death of Captain Philip Stanhope, who fell mortally wounded. He was struck by a ball on the forehead as he was held up by two sailors to look over a wall seven feet high. He was interred in one of the vaults of the castle. The General wrote: ‘The conquest has cost me very dear, but since Philip died in doing service to Her Majesty and his country, I shall think his life well bestowed, as I should my own.’
Ciudadela at once surrendered, and its garrison of a hundred men became prisoners of war. There was no resistance in any other part of the island. Stanhope wrote: ‘A great part of our success in reducing this island is owing to the zeal and affection the people have for us, which is beyond expression.’ Port Mahon was garrisoned by British marines, and the fortifications were strengthened by new works at a cost of about 60,000l. It was General Stanhope’s idea that Minorca should be held as a sort of mortgage for the large sums advanced to King Charles.
A medal was struck at the Tower to commemorate the conquests of Sardinia and Minorca.
Obv.: Bust of Queen Anne.
Rev.: Victory holding a palm-branch in one hand, and the Union Jack in the other. Two islands appearing in the distance, ‘SARDINIA ET BALEARIS MINOR CAPTÆ.’
Exergue: MDCCVII.
Stanhope returned to his military duties in Spain. He was at Barcelona again on November 9. It is not necessary to follow the course of events. The death of the Emperor Joseph I. in 1711 opened the succession to his brother Charles; while his want of success and the animosity of the Castilians destroyed all chance of his succeeding to the crown of Spain. In fact, he became Emperor of Germany as Charles VI.
The Ministry of Harley and St. John opened negotiations for peace. The abandonment of the Catalans and Majorcans to their fate cast an indelible stain of infamy on the British Government. Queen Anne had several times pledged her royal word for the preservation of the lives and liberties of the Catalans. In consequence of those promises the Catalans had begun and maintained an insurrection. Yet no stipulation was made in the treaty, and St. John had the effrontery to announce that ‘it is not for the interests of England to preserve the Catalan liberties.’
On April 11, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was signed, the Emperor Charles refusing to be a party to it. The French Prince was acknowledged as King of Spain, being Philip V. of that country, but resigning any right of succession to the French crown. The Duke of Savoy was to have Sicily; Gibraltar and Minorca were ceded to England; the Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to the Emperor. Lord Stanhope, the descendant of the conqueror of Minorca, has pleaded with some truth that, whilst the glories of the war belong to the whole British people, the disgrace of the peace, the unworthy result of such great achievements, rests on a small knot of factious politicians.
Their beloved King Charles, now Emperor of Germany, must be acquitted of blame as regards the Catalans and Majorcans. He was powerless. Writing to General Stanhope, he said: ‘Knowing as I do your goodness of heart, I am persuaded that you and your friends will compassionate the fidelity, firmness, and misfortune of my poor Catalans. No difficulties, no dangers, no temptations could shake their generous loyalty. All this pierces my heart. I leave you to judge whether it is in my power to aid them without a naval force. I doubt not that you will consider the dreadful state to which they have been reduced by the evil-minded men of your country, contrary to the most solemn and repeated engagements.’
Catalonia and Majorca were abandoned to the mean vengeance of Philip. Minorca was more fortunate in becoming a British possession. In 1717 the conqueror of Minorca was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon.
Minorca was the chief gainer by the Peace of Utrecht. She secured many years of good government and freedom from oppression by her connection with her English friends. But England herself derived almost equal advantage. She had become a Mediterranean Power. She had Gibraltar, but it was necessary that she should also have a base within the inland sea where her ships could refit and her sailors could be refreshed; and this need was supplied in full measure by the splendid harbour of Port Mahon. The value of such a possession was experienced a very few years after the peace.
The Emperor had sent an army into Hungary against the Turks, and Philip V. gave a solemn promise to the Pope that he would not undertake anything against the interests of the Emperor while he was engaged in so religious a cause. Yet, without regard to this promise and in defiance of the duties imposed upon him by the treaty of peace, he sent a fleet, with a land force of nine thousand men, from Barcelona, which seized upon the island of Sardinia in July 1717. His excuse was that King Charles had delivered up the towns in Catalonia and Majorca to the inhabitants, thus putting Philip to the trouble and expense of reducing those people to obedience.
In consequence of this aggression, the Powers made a treaty, called the Quadruple Alliance, by which the Emperor was to give up his claim to the crown of Spain, to receive Sicily from the Duke of Savoy, and to give him Sardinia in its place, with the title of King. Philip would not agree to this arrangement and continued his preparations for war, without any regard to the remonstrances of England and even of France. In this he was strongly influenced by his second wife and by his Minister, Cardinal Alberoni.
In order to prevent farther mischief in the Mediterranean a formidable fleet was got ready at Spithead, under the command of Admiral Sir George Byng, with orders to hinder and resist all attempts of Spain against Italy or Sicily. Byng sailed on June 25, 1718, with twenty ships of the line, two fire-ships, two bomb-ships, a hospital-ship, and a store-ship. Off Cape St. Vincent he sent a messenger, by way of Cadiz, to convey a letter to Lord Harrington, the British Envoy at Madrid, that the Spanish Government might be informed of the approach of the British fleet and of Byng’s instructions.
The Envoy showed the letter to Cardinal Alberoni, who declared that his master would run all hazards rather than recall his fleet and troops, that the Spaniards would not be frightened, and that he had no fear of the result if Admiral Byng attacked them. The Envoy then requested his Eminence to look over a list of the British ships which he held in his hand. Alberoni snatched it and threw it on the ground, trampling on it in a great passion.
There was nothing more to be done with such a violent diplomatist. The British fleet entered the Mediterranean, and arrived at Port Mahon on July 23. Here the Admiral landed four regiments, and took the marines forming the old garrison to serve in the fleet. On August 1 the Admiral arrived at Naples, and conferred with Count Daun, the very popular Viceroy for the Emperor Charles VI. It was found that the Spaniards had landed an army in Sicily and were besieging Messina, and that there was a large Spanish fleet there, consisting of twenty-nine ships of the line and frigates, two being seventy-four-gun ships and eight with sixty guns.
On August 9 Sir George Byng with his formidable fleet arrived off Messina, and sent a letter to the Spanish General proposing to him that he should grant a cessation of hostilities for two months, to give time for the Powers to agree to a lasting peace, apprising him of his instructions in case of refusal. The Spaniard replied that he had no powers to treat, and that he would obey his orders, which were to seize Sicily for the King of Spain.
The Spanish fleet had weighed the day before, and was out of sight to the south. Byng went in chase, and before noon of the next day he came in sight of their twenty-seven men-of-war in order of battle. Don Antonio de Castaneta was the Admiral in command, and there were four rear-admirals, one of them an Irish renegade named Cammock. On sighting the English fleet they stood away, but still in order of battle. All that day and the succeeding night the English Admiral followed them. Early in the morning of the 11th one of the Spanish rear-admirals parted company with six frigates and all the galleys, bomb-vessels, and store-ships, standing for the Sicilian coast near Syracuse. Captain Walton of the Canterbury, with five vessels under his command, was detached in pursuit. Walton’s report of his proceedings is a model of business-like brevity:
‘Sir,—We have taken and destroyed all the Spanish ships and vessels which were upon the coast, the number as per margin.’
Admiral Byng continued the pursuit of the main fleet and came up with it off Cape Passaro. The Orford and Grafton were the foremost ships, and the Spaniards fired their stern chase guns. The order was given not to return the fire unless it was repeated. It was repeated, and the Orford promptly engaged the Santa Rosa, of sixty-four guns, and took her. Next the San Carlos, of sixty guns, struck to the Kent. The Principe de Asturias, with the flag of Rear-Admiral Chacon, was dealt with by the Breda and Captain. The Spanish Admiral’s flagship, of seventy-four guns, made a running fight until 3 P.M., and then struck to the Superbe. Three other ships were taken. Sir George Byng employed the next few days refitting and repairing damages in the prizes. Nine of the Spanish ships escaped, thirteen were taken and became prizes, three were burnt, three sunk. Practically the Spanish fleet ceased to exist.
The value of Minorca as a base then became apparent. Rear-Admiral Cornwall was sent to Port Mahon with the ships that required repairs and all the prizes. On February 3, 1719, Sir George Byng went with the rest of the fleet to Port Mahon, to refresh the men and refit the ships. Returning to Naples in April, he found that Count Mercy had been appointed to the command of a German army to expel the Spaniards from Sicily. Mercy was a tall, soldier-like man, but excessively short-sighted. He had great strength of mind and body, was very ambitious, with an insatiable thirst for glory. He would have been a greater general if he had been endowed with a cooler temper. The task before him was a difficult one, although the English fleet gave him command of the sea. All things being ready, Sir George Byng sailed from Baia with eight men-of-war, escorting two hundred transports having on board 10,000 infantry and 3,500 horse. By the advice of the Savoyard Governor of Melazzo, the landing was effected on the coast about twenty miles to the westward of that fortress. Count Seckendorf was detached to reduce the Lipari Islands to the Emperor’s obedience—an important matter, so as to keep the communications open between Naples and Sicily.
The Sicilian campaign commenced in May 1719, and there was some very severe fighting. Count Mercy found himself in considerable difficulties in the interior; for the natives were on the side of the Spaniards. He sent a message with an urgent request that Sir George Byng would come to him for a consultation. The Admiral did not hesitate. He set out with a strong escort, accompanied by his eldest son and Captain Matthews of the Kent. The road was strewn with the dead bodies of men and horses, and was very rugged, but they reached the Count’s tent in the evening. A guard of honour was drawn up for the Admiral’s reception, and one of the men was shot through the head at the door of the tent by a musket-ball from the enemy’s camp. He fell dead at the Admiral’s feet as he dismounted. Sir George found the Count very weak from a wound, the ball not having yet been extracted. But he was full of pluck, and desirous of again attacking the Spaniards in their strong position, though his officers advised a retreat to the coast. A council next day confirmed this opinion, and dwelt on the urgency of receiving reinforcements. Sir George therefore returned to the coast and immediately proceeded with two ships to Naples to represent the state of things to the Viceroy. He then returned to Sicily, where he found that Count Mercy had been disabled by an apoplectic seizure; but that his second in command had taken Taormina by surprise and advanced to Messina, where the siege was commenced on July 20. The town surrendered and Sir George Byng took his fleet into the harbour, but the citadel held out.
The Emperor had resolved to send troops from Milan, by way of Genoa, to reinforce Count Mercy, and, knowing the extreme slowness of the Germans, the Admiral resolved to superintend the business personally. On August 23 he returned to Naples, arriving at Genoa on September 7. He found everything extremely backward. After much worry and almost incredible trouble, what with persuasion and threats, he got seven thousand men on board the transports and brought them to Messina. The whole army was overjoyed to see a man who always brought them relief and succour. Count Mercy had returned from Reggio, but with the ball not yet extracted. He was delighted at the Admiral’s success in bringing him help. It decided the fate of the citadel, which surrendered after a siege of ninety-one days. The Spanish General then fortified the almost impregnable position at Castro Giovanni; but Count Mercy and the Admiral thought it more important to occupy Palermo, and while operations for that purpose were being pushed forward the Spaniards offered to evacuate Sicily on terms.
Early in 1720 the news arrived that Philip V. had given up his ambitious projects and joined the Quadruple Alliance. Sicily and Sardinia were to be evacuated by the Spaniards within two months. During May and June the Spanish troops were embarked in transports at Termini and sent to Barcelona. The Duke of Savoy was then put into quiet possession of Sardinia. Thus the work was completed for the execution of which the British fleet under Sir George Byng had been sent to the Mediterranean. The English Admiral certainly deserves the highest credit. He was diligent in preparing his measures, attending to every detail himself. In action he was alike careful and energetic. His patience under the most trying circumstances was inexhaustible. He was most successful as a diplomatist, and at length he acquired such influence that he was looked to as an umpire in the numerous misunderstandings and disputes of rival commanders. Thus the service that was entrusted to him, a most harassing and difficult service, was performed with remarkable ability and complete success. On his return he was created Viscount Torrington, and in 1733 he died in harness as First Lord of the Admiralty.
Minorca played an unostentatious but very important part in this campaign. Without that base for refitting the ships and refreshing the men the difficulties of Admiral Byng would have been increased tenfold.
If the occupation of Minorca was very important to the British as a base for their fleet, it was an even greater blessing to the inhabitants. While the ancient rights and liberties of the Catalans and Majorcans were ruthlessly destroyed by their Bourbon conqueror, the Minorcans were treated very differently. Their religion, their form of civil government, their customs and traditions were all respected by the English, who came as friends rather than as masters. It will be interesting to glance over the condition of the island during the earlier years of British occupation.
Minorca was divided into five provinces, called terminos. At the eastern end was the termino of Mahon with the capital under British rule, and at the western the termino of Ciudadela, the ancient capital. Between them were the terminos of Alaior, Mercadal, and Fererias, each with its chief village of the same name. Mercadal included the greater part of the northern coast.
The principal feature of the island is the splendid harbour of Port Mahon, with deep water, and capable in former days of sheltering all the fleets of Europe. There are several small islands in the harbour, and on one the hospital was built when Sir John Jennings was Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean, 1711-13. The quarantine station was on another island. The picturesque town of Mahon, built entirely of freestone, rose up the side of a hill, with its great church and monasteries showing above the roofs of the houses. The streets were rocky and narrow, but the site was fresh and healthy. Along the waterside there was a long quay, one end being reserved for the navy and naval stores, and the other for trading vessels and merchandise.
At the entrance of the harbour is the castle of San Felipe, on a neck of land between Port Mahon and St. Stephen’s Cove. The main fort consisted of four bastions connected by curtains, with a deep ditch hewn out of the solid rocks. Within the area there were the Governor’s house, barracks, guard-room, and chapel. In the centre there was a pump to supply the troops with rain water from a large cistern. The whole rock is undermined with subterranean passages and chambers. A considerable suburb, including barracks and officers’ quarters, rose up outside the castle. The plain beyond is stony and barren, but at the head of St. Stephen’s Cove there is a barranco or ravine, bounded by rocks on either side, where there are fruit trees and garden vegetables of all kinds. These barrancos are the fertile and fruit-yielding parts of the island. Originally long creeks penetrating into the land from the sea, they have been gradually filled with rich soil by floods from the hills on the north side, until they were raised above the sea level. There is no tide to carry off the deposits brought down from the hills. At the upper end of the harbour there is another extensive barranco, known as the gardens of San Juan, which was the principal source of supply of vegetables for Mahon. A few miles farther north is the albufera, or salt lake, separated from the sea by a sand-spit, and abounding in fish; and still farther to the north are the harbour and beautiful valley of Adaia. Wild pigeons and rabbits frequent the rocky cliffs and islands on the coast.
The interior of the island is barren and stony, except for the barrancos. Alaior was a tolerably well-built town on an eminence; but Mercadal and Fererias are only wretched villages. The north coast is deeply indented, and Port Fornelle is a large harbour.
Ciudadela, at the head of an inlet on the western coast, was the capital in the time of the Moors, and continued to be so during the Aragonese and Austrian rule. It was then the place of residence of the Governor, and was a flourishing and well-built town. Vessels of small draft, trading with Majorca and Barcelona, came up the inlet and supplied the island with foreign goods. The wall which encircled Ciudadela dates from the time of the Moors, to which more modern fortifications had been added. In the plaza was the Government House and the Lonja, or exchange, an ancient building raised on lofty Gothic arches. Thence a passage led to a postern and, by a long flight of stone steps, to the quay. The cathedral is in the centre of the town, and the largest religious edifice in the island, with a square tower and spire, all of freestone. It probably dates from the thirteenth century. Near the Mahon gate was a large convent of Austin friars, where there used to be public arguments on the philosophy of the schools. There was an extensive Franciscan convent, and a nunnery of Santa Clara. A fine barranco to the north supplied Ciudadela with fruit and vegetables.
The people of the island were well housed in solid stone buildings, the farmhouses being generally of two storeys, with the granary under the roof. The farmers have to contend against frequent and violent gales, a very stony and shallow soil, and scarcity of water. They are very laborious, and work under a system of partnership. There is an equal division of produce between landlord and tenant, the landlord finding buildings, implements, and cattle, the tenant seeds and labour. Very few landlords cultivate their own land.
The government of the island was on the model of that of Majorca, as established by En Jayme I. The Courts of Justice were removed from Ciudadela to Port Mahon by the English; otherwise no change was made in the civil government, which was left in the hands of the natives. The magistrates were called Jurats, so many in each Termino; and their duties were to impose taxes, see that the markets were properly supplied, and lay the hardships or grievances of the people before the Governor. These Jurats were chosen from all ranks. The Jurat-Major was a gentleman, his colleagues being chosen from merchants, artisans, and peasants—one from each class. They were elected for a year. The Jurats of the island, with the consent of the Governor, could call a General Council of their body, consisting of twenty-four members, which met at Ciudadela. Their business was to settle the taxes and decide upon the incidence of taxation, as well as to provide for special contingencies and to represent grievances. Besides the Jurats, there was a Bayle or Judge, who held a court and decided cases, there being an appeal to the supreme court at Port Mahon. The ecclesiastical court was held by the Vicar-General at Ciudadela. There were five parishes, and the Curas received tithes, the other clergy being supported by Masses, fees, and collections. In 1713 there were on the island 75 secular clergy, 140 friars, and 85 nuns—in all 300; a tolerably large proportion for a population of 27,000.
Under British rule there was an end to the oppression and peculation of Governors sent to the island to mend their broken fortunes; justice was properly administered, and trade flourished. The condition of the people visibly improved during Sir Robert Walpole’s long peace. The island depended on foreign trade for a third of the corn that was required, and all the oil and spirits, besides other things. It was the English money circulated by the troops that preserved the islanders from bankruptcy, and indeed enabled them to live in prosperity as compared with their former lot.
The English garrison used to consist of five infantry regiments and a company of artillery, in all 2,400 effective men. They were quartered at San Felipe, Alaior, with a detachment at Fornelle, and Ciudadela, the favourite quarters. The successive Governors took an almost fatherly interest in the island, and British rule continued to be very popular.
One of the best Governors was Brigadier Kane, who was many years ruling in Minorca, and who died there. Soon after his arrival there was a great scarcity of fresh provisions: the numbers of sheep and bullocks had dwindled almost to nothing, and chickens had also become scarce. Kane set to work to remedy the evil with great energy. He procured and imported herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. He also got large supplies of poultry from France, Italy, and the Barbary coast, distributing them among the farmers and peasants; and he encouraged the people to set to work improving their breeds. Kane also made an excellent road for the whole length of the island, from Ciudadela to Port Mahon.
The British occupation was not wholly without permanent record, both as regards general history and some scientific results. Mr. John Armstrong, the Government Engineer, described the island, its physical aspects, antiquities, people, and institutions in a series of letters which were published as ‘The History of the Island of Minorca’ in 1752. Dr. George Cleghorn resided for many years on the island as Surgeon-Major to the garrison. In 1751 he published his ‘Observations on the Epidemical Diseases in Minorca,’ a work which contains a list of 180 species of plants of the island, with Latin, English, and Minorcan names.36
The first period of British rule lasted for nearly half a century, from 1708 to 1757, when there was a catastrophe.
The Seven Years’ War commenced in March 1756, and the first enterprise of the French was designed against Minorca. The preparations at Toulon were, however, concealed from a dull and apathetic English Ministry by pretended activity in the ports of the Channel, to instil a belief that an invasion of England was intended. Newcastle was Prime Minister, Anson at the Admiralty, and Henry Fox Secretary of State. Pitt did not take office until the following year. The English Ministers were completely duped. Meanwhile the French had got ready thirteen sail of the line and fifteen thousand troops; and at last, when the danger of losing Minorca became apparent, hurry and confusion took the place of sloth and apathy.
Even then only ten ships were ordered to the Mediterranean, incompletely manned and without hospital or fire ships. The command was given to Admiral John Byng, fourth son of Lord Torrington, who had served under his father on board the Superbe at the defeat of the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. Byng sailed from Spithead on April 7, 1756, arriving at Gibraltar on May 2. Here he found the Louisa, Captain Edgcombe, who reported that he had been driven from Minorca by a French fleet of thirteen sail of the line, commanded by Admiral Galissonière, who had landed the Duc de Richelieu on the island with fifteen thousand men. Byng demanded a battalion of infantry from General Fowke, the Governor of Gibraltar, to reinforce the Minorca garrison. After consulting a council of war, this demand was refused by the Governor. There was one regiment, commanded by Lord Robert Bertie, in the fleet, and about thirty officers who had been on leave, including General Stuart, Lord Effingham, and Colonel Cornwallis, coming out to rejoin their regiments at Minorca.
While Byng was on his way, General Blakeney, the Governor of the island, was besieged by the Due de Richelieu in the castle of San Felipe. Byng sailed on May 8, and was off Majorca on the 10th, where he was joined by the Phœnix (Captain Hervey), who confirmed the news brought by Captain Edgcomb to Gibraltar. Byng’s fleet consisted of the—
| Ramillies (90) | Kingston (60) |
| Culloden (74) | Defiance (60) |
| Buckingham (68) | Louisa (56) |
| Lancaster (66) | Portland (48) |
| Trident (64) | Deptford (48) |
| Intrepid (64) | Chesterfield (40) |
| Captain (64) | Phœnix (22) |
| Revenge (64) | Dolphin (22) |
| Experiment (22) | |
On the 19th the British fleet was off Port Mahon. Byng saw the Union Jack still flying on the castle of San Felipe, but several French batteries were bombarding the walls. His orders were to save Minorca at all hazards. These orders were positive and explicit, and it was his duty to carry them out at whatever sacrifice. The sight of General Blakeney still holding out and hoping for relief would have aroused the ardour of most men. The French fleet came in sight, and Byng stood towards it, making the signal for line of battle ahead at 2 P.M. The French, being about two leagues distant, tacked to gain the weather-gage, and Byng did the same. Next morning was the 20th. It was hazy in the forenoon, but at noon it cleared, and Byng made a signal to bear away two points from the wind and engage the enemy.
Rear-Admiral West, with his division, bore away seven points, and attacked the French fleet with such impetuosity that several of their ships were put out of action. The French centre kept its position, and Byng did not advance. This prevented West from following up his advantage. If the Commander-in-Chief had shown equal zeal, the French fleet would have been defeated and Minorca saved. As it was, by holding back he gave Admiral Galissonière time to retreat out of danger. The wind enabled Byng to fight if he would, when a complete victory would have been the result. But he would not.
On the absurd plea that Gibraltar might be in danger, Admiral Byng returned to that fortress, and Galissonière took up his former station off the entrance to Port Mahon. Blakeney and his gallant companions were abandoned to their fate. Nevertheless, they held out until June 28, after a brave defence of ten weeks, when the Governor surrendered to the Duc de Richelieu on very honourable terms.
Admiral Byng arrived at Gibraltar on June 19, where he found Commodore Broderick with a reinforcement of five ships of the line. The Commander-in-Chief therefore resolved to return to Minorca, and was making preparations for a second attempt. In the midst of this tardy activity the Antelope frigate arrived with Admirals Hawke and Saunders and Lord Tyrawly on board. Their orders were to supersede Admirals Byng and West and Governor Fowke, and to send them home under arrest. Sir Edward Hawke at once sailed for Minorca, but found the French flag flying over the castle of San Felipe. Admiral Galissonière had retired to Toulon, and there was nothing left to be done.
The people of England were furious at the loss of Minorca, venting all their rage on the unfortunate Admiral and none on the incapable Ministry which had shown apathy and want of foresight and capacity, and had neglected measures which, if taken in time, would have made Port Mahon safe from attack.
The prisoners arrived at Portsmouth in July. Admiral West was graciously received by the King and made a Lord of the Admiralty. General Fowke was dismissed the service. Byng was taken to Greenwich, where he remained a close prisoner until December. He was then brought back to Portsmouth, to be tried by court-martial. The Court sat for a month. Admiral West deposed that there was no reason why the rest of the fleet should not have engaged the enemy as closely as he did; also that there was no signal for giving chase when the enemy retreated. General Blakeney said that boats might have passed between the garrison and the fleet, and that if the troops ordered for his relief had been landed he could have held out until the arrival of Sir Edward Hawke. Captain Gardiner, of the flagship, deposed that he advised the Admiral to bear down on the enemy, but without effect, and that the Admiral took command of the Ramillies entirely upon himself on the day of the action. The court found that he had not done his utmost to destroy the ships of the enemy that it was his duty to engage, but that this did not proceed from want of courage or disaffection.
Lord Anson, the First Lord of the Admiralty, resigned, and was succeeded by Lord Temple, who had to discuss the sentence with George II. He drew a parallel between Byng’s conduct at Minorca and George’s own conduct at Oudenarde in 1708; leaving the King to draw the necessary inference that if Byng deserved to be shot, George deserved to be hanged. The King said afterwards: ‘Temple is so disagreeable a fellow that there is no bearing him.’
Admiral West, when he found that it was in tended to shoot Byng, resigned his seat at the Admiralty. His evidence against Byng had been damning, but he would not be a party to his execution. Nor would he serve afloat under such a Ministry, saying that ‘he was determined to forego anything rather than serve on terms which subject an officer to the treatment shown Admiral Byng. He was not convicted of cowardice nor of disaffection, but of misconduct, an offence never till now thought capital.’ Admiral West was of opinion that the word ‘negligence’ in the Article of War was only intended to refer to one of those two crimes, cowardice or disaffection—‘that is, negligence proceeding from cowardice or disaffection.’ He said that was the opinion of the House of Commons when the Bill was before them. Admiral Forbes, another Lord of the Admiralty, who held similar views, resigned at the same time.
Admiral Byng certainly deserved to be dismissed from the service; but his execution was a political murder. He was shot on March 14, 1758, after eight months of close arrest. He had forty years of naval service. George II. would show no mercy, and there was a malignant political clique whose neglect of duty would be lost sight of through this persecution of a scape-goat even unto death. The mistaken resentment of a deluded populace was stimulated to the utmost. The loss of Minorca was due quite as much to the neglect of Ministers in not taking earlier steps for its defence as to the misconduct of Admiral Byng.
At the peace in 1763 Minorca was restored to England, and enjoyed another nineteen years of good government and prosperity, making altogether sixty-seven years.
But when the American colonies broke out in rebellion and the chief Powers of Europe seized the opportunity to attack our country in its great difficulty—first France, then Spain, then Holland, England’s enemies, thought their opportunity had come. They were mistaken, for England is never greater than when surrounded by enemies. She gave France her answer off Martinique; France and Spain together in Gibraltar Bay. But she could not be everywhere, and poor little Minorca was lost. While England was dealing back such telling blows elsewhere, the French and Spaniards landed, and laid siege to the castle of San Felipe. Their leader, De Crillon, pushed on the attack, but the English Governor, General Murray, made a most gallant defence. It was in 1782. Murray did not surrender until his garrison was reduced to six hundred men, while the besiegers had twelve thousand. It was typical of the whole war—England standing proudly at bay and dealing out far more than she got, with rebels, French, Spaniards, Dutch, all yelping round her. Peace was signed in 1783, but Minorca was lost.
Don Luis Berton de los Balbs, Duke of Crillon, Marquis of Valleron, and Count of St. Pol, was made a Grandee of Spain and Duke of Mahon in 1790 for subduing six hundred English soldiers by starvation with an army of twelve thousand men. He died in 1796. The second Duke of Mahon was Viceroy of Navarre for Joseph Bonaparte, and a traitor to his country. His niece Victoriana, Duchess of Mahon, succeeded to all the titles, and was living in 1870.
Thus was Minorca twice lost, after most gallant defences against tremendous odds by Generals Blakeney and Murray. The little island was destined once more to become a British possession for a few years, and then to be separated from her truest and best friends for ever.
When the War of the French Revolution broke out England had no base within the Mediterranean. The necessity for such a base was very much increased when Napoleon got possession of Malta. Lord St. Vincent had taken the command of the Mediterranean station in December 1795; on February 14, 1797, he fought the great battle which gave him his title, and afterwards kept up the blockade of Cadiz. He knew that Napoleon was meditating the Egyptian expedition, and detached Nelson with thirteen sail of the line to watch and, if possible, to intercept the enemy. At the same time he sent home an urgent appeal for reinforcements, and Sir Roger Curtis was sent to him with eight sail of the line.
Lord St. Vincent came to the conclusion that the possession of a base within the Mediterranean for the English fleet was of such importance that it was necessary to occupy Minorca once more. He was not a man to let the grass grow under his feet. He had no sooner come to this conclusion than he proceeded to act upon it. He organised a squadron of six ships, to be led by Commodore Duckworth:
Leviathan (74), Commodore Duckworth.
Centaur (74), Captain John Markham.
Argo (44), Captain J. Bowen.
Aurora (28), Captain Caulfield.
Cormorant (20), Captain Lord Mark Kerr.
Peterel (16), Captain Charles Long.
The squadron convoyed several transports with troops under the command of General the Hon. Charles Stuart, a younger son of the Earl of Bute, the Prime Minister. After a tedious passage, owing to contrary winds, the squadron brought to within five miles of the port of Fornelle, on the north coast of Minorca, on November 7, 1798. Fornelle is a very large and spacious harbour, but it contains many shoals and much foul ground. On the west side of the entrance there is an old fort, consisting of four bastions connected by curtains. On the other side there is an atalaya or signal station. After a reconnaissance, it was decided that Fornelle was not a desirable place for landing the troops. It was decided to send the smaller ships and transports to Addaya Creek, while the two line-of-battle ships stood off and on outside.
Addaya forms a large harbour on the north-east coast of the island, with a valley surrounded by lofty bare hills, which shelter it from the bleak north-westerly winds. The valley produces every kind of vegetable in abundance, while the vineyards and fruit gardens yield grapes, oranges, and pomegranates in profusion. One of the very few springs in the island sends down a stream, whence irrigating channels were conducted to every part of the valley. This is one of the most delightful spots in Minorca; but the harbour is full of rocks, and is only safe for small vessels.
Here General Stuart landed his troops and immediately occupied the surrounding heights, the Spaniards retreating to Ciudadela and Port Mahon. There was no fighting, and the whole island surrendered to General Stuart, including the castle of San Felipe, on November 15.
The Commodore, hearing a report of strange sail being in sight, proceeded to Ciudadela with the Leviathan and Centaur, and at daybreak on the 13th five sail were reported from the Centaur’s masthead. An exciting chase was at once commenced. The strangers were large Spanish frigates, and they hauled their winds for Majorca. The Leviathan returned to Ciudadela that evening. Captain Markham of the Centaur set every stitch of canvas and continued the chase until the 14th, but he was completely outsailed by the Spaniards. He returned to Port Mahon on the day of the surrender, writing home that ‘the whole island is now in our possession, without loss of any kind.’ He received 884l. 6s. 8d. as his share of the capture of Minorca.
The possession of Port Mahon, in a war with France and Spain combined, provided a base for the fleet whence the Spanish coast could be harassed and the approaches to Toulon watched and hindered.
The Centaur (Captain Markham) and Cormorant (Captain Lord Mark Kerr) cruised along the coast of Catalonia, doing some damage to the enemy in February 1799. The ports of Cambrils and Salou, memorable as the places of embarkation of En Jayme I. and his successors, received unpleasant visits: the guns on the fort at Cambrils were dismounted, and a large Spanish frigate was driven on shore and became a wreck. The Centaur and Cormorant passed April at Port Mahon, and in May Lord Mark Kerr received orders to take home General Stuart and his staff.
In the end of the year Lord Keith had arrived with eleven ships of the line, as second in command to Lord St. Vincent, and continued the blockade of Cadiz. The Commander-in-Chief, owing to ill-health, was living on shore at Gibraltar. Suddenly the news arrived that Lord Bridport had allowed the French fleet of twenty-five sail of the line, commanded by Admiral Bruix, to give him the slip from Brest. On May 4 the French fleet came in sight of Lord Keith, who formed in line and offered battle. But a gale of wind was blowing, and Bruix bore up for the Mediterranean. Keith came to Gibraltar to report the great event to Lord St. Vincent, and the old veteran at once hoisted his flag on board the Ville de Paris and took command, ill as he was. Taking Lord Keith under his orders, he proceeded with the fleet to Port Mahon, the object being to engage the enemy and prevent him from getting into Toulon.
At midnight on May 21 Lord St. Vincent made sail towards Toulon; but on June 2 he became so ill that he was obliged to return to Port Mahon, and on the 18th he resigned the command to Lord Keith and went home. On July 3 the fleet came in sight of Toulon, the Centaur (Captain Markham) being ahead. Owing to some news he received, Lord Keith then crowded all sail for the Bay of Rosas, in hopes of intercepting the French fleet. But there was disappointment, and once more he shaped a course for Toulon. The Centaur was always the advanced ship, well ahead, the frigate Bellona being five miles astern, and the rest of the fleet out of sight. At 9 A.M. on June 18 five strange sail were reported from the masthead. A very exciting chase immediately began at a distance of about sixty miles from Cape Sicie on the French coast. The strangers proved to be three French frigates and two brigs. After nine hours the Centaur came up with the sternmost frigate, and fired into her. She struck, and Captain Markham made a signal to the Bellona to take possession. Again making all sail, he came up first with the second and then with the third frigate, which both struck, as well as the brigs. The prizes were brought to Port Mahon, and all were taken into the British Navy.
Lord Keith cruised off Toulon for some days and then went to Genoa; but still there were no authentic tidings of the French fleet. Once more he stood towards Minorca, and received a reinforcement of twelve sail of the line under Admiral Collingwood. But on June 24 the French fleet left the Mediterranean, and on July 12 it was at Cadiz. Lord Keith determined to try for news at Gibraltar, arriving on the 14th, only to receive the maddening intelligence that the enemy was just two days ahead of him. Then began a desperate chase; for if the French fleet could be forced to give battle, it would be the most momentous event in the war. On the 30th Lord Keith left Gibraltar with thirty-one sail of the line. He was just too late. The Centaur looked into Brest and saw forty sail of the line safely anchored there, being the French fleet under Admiral Bruix and the Spanish fleet under Admiral Mazaredo. They had got in only six hours before, and Keith was gaining on them fast. Lord Keith, stung with anguish at the disappointment, sadly returned to Port Mahon.
Minorca continued to be a very important base for the operations of the British fleet, whence Lord Keith obtained his memorable successes on the coast of Egypt. But when the Peace of Amiens was signed on March 26, 1802, Minorca was ceded to Spain. The long connection of the little island with England was thus severed for ever, and to the Minorcans was only left a tradition and a memory of happier and more prosperous times.
Such prosperity as Minorca has since enjoyed has been due to her excellent harbour, the fame of which as a safe place of refuge gave rise to Andrea Doria’s well-known proverb: