Mr Monteath advises a naturalization of young plants, after they are got from nurseries, in a soil and climate similar to that which they are ultimately to occupy. We see no necessity for this. All that is required in a young plant, is, that it be of good variety, of firm fibre, in a healthy growing state; with a stout stem, in proportion to the height, {142} with numerous side branches, and with a root rather large in comparison to the part above ground.

Our author’s mode of preparation of turfy peat-moss soils for planting we think good, but conveniently applicable in heathy moss ground, only with the assistance of the late Mr Finlayson’s ingenious device of the self-clearing plough. At every seven feet of breadth, Mr Monteath excavates a deep rut, by means of a plough with three coulters and two mould-boards,—two of the coulters cutting, each, a side of the rut, the other dividing it in the middle, and the double mould-board turning out a furrow to each side. He passes this plough twice along in forming the rut, each time turning out from four to six inches in depth, so that the whole depth of the rut is about ten inches. These minor drains communicate with larger ones dug by the spade across the field. The thrown up slices are then cut into lengths of eighteen inches, and carefully dried, by turning and by piling a few together, as openly as possible, that the wind may blow through. A small pile, about six in number, is then burnt upon the intended site of each tree, if necessary, aided in the combustion by furze or other fuel; taking care, by proper regulation of the quantity of fuel, or otherwise, to prevent the combustion from proceeding too {143} far, and the ashes from becoming white and light, as in this case a considerable part of their virtues is dissipated. This ploughing, drying, and burning, being performed as early in the summer as the weather will permit, the earth under the ashes is immediately dug over, from two to four feet in breadth, and mixed with the ashes, and the following spring the planting is performed. In situations where Mr Monteath’s plough could not be worked to advantage, these minor drains may be formed by the spade; and in heathy peat soils, not requiring drains, the burning of the heathy turfs on the site of the plants might be efficacious in correcting the tannin, and in reducing and enriching the soil within the immediate reach of the young plant, which would thus acquire strength to subdue the more distant part, and gradually reduce and form the whole into soil capable of affording healthy nourishment.

We also approve of the plan mentioned by Mr Monteath, for covering with timber, rocks or stony ground, so bare of soil as not to admit of planting, by means of placing seeds in the crevices, or on the shelves of the rock, and scraping together a little mould to cover them; or, when practicable, placing the seeds in the middle of the mould. Here, however, we think he errs, in recommending the {144} cutting down of the young resulting shoot, year after year, that the plant may acquire long roots, extended down the crevices, to give the future stem stability and sufficient foraging. We would never cut down but when the plant appeared stunted, and not then in succession, nearer than three or four years from the last cutting. Those who possess rocky precipices, so steep or inaccessible that the above method of our author could not be practised with conveniency, may cause a quantity of the cheapest seeds of trees be sown down over the top of the crags during the winter: we would prefer the end of January, as the mouldering effects of the frost and the rains would cover numbers of these, so as they would come to vegetate.

Mr Monteath advises, in rearing oak-forest or copse, to put in only about thirty plants per acre, and by layers from these to cover the interstices. In order to recommend this practice, he states the celerity with which these could be extended, layer beyond layer, making steps, every second season, of eight or nine feet, by relaying the last layer’s shoots, and he affirms, that a forest could be sooner, and more economically raised by this means, than by planting the whole at first. This is sufficiently imaginative. He seems not to be aware of the fact, that life is {145} very languid, and growth slow, in any branch horizontally extended, especially when upright stems from the same root are suffered to remain. He also expects the layer-roots to become strong and capable to forage for large trees. That they will, in the oak, ever become so, we think very improbable. Examination of the roots which proceed from oak-layers would place this beyond dispute; if they are, as we presume, fibrous and slender, similar to those produced by apple-layers, no tree or bush of any great size will result. Large trees, generally, cannot be procured by layers, but only in those semiaquatic kinds which grow readily by slips. Whether it may be advantageous to fill up the vacancies of copse by layers, in preference to seed-plants, experience only can determine. The bark of trees or bushes raised by layers or cuttings is generally thicker than that of those raised from seed:—this might balance some deficiency of the growth in the case of oak-coppice.

Our author advises the cutting off the upper part of spruce-trees on the outside of plantations, in order that their lower branches may extend the more, and remain vigorous,—thence affording more adequate shelter to the within plantation. Perhaps it is quite unnecessary to guard any person from practising this piece of folly. On the outside of woods, spruce-firs {146} will retain the branches in vigour, sufficiently low for all the purposes of shelter: nothing could be more unseemly than the decapitated trees; and in a few years most of them would become rotted in the stem, die, and fall down.

From observing, on the western side of Scotland, thriving plantations exposed to south-west winds and sea-spray, and also to north-east winds and sea-spray, in woods extending along the western side of the salt lochs in Argyllshire, our author predicts, that, under his panacea of repeated cutting down, trees would grow luxuriantly in exposed situations on the north-eastern margin of our island. We do not desire to see Mr Monteath’s sanguine hope turned to disappointment, which a trial would certainly effect. There is something peculiarly hard and cutting in our vernal north-eastern breeze fresh from ocean, which withers up the tender spreading leaves of every plant raised from the ground, and placed in its immediate draught. This is occasioned as well by a cold moist, as by a cold dry wind, the new vegetable structure in the developing process, when the tissues of tubes and cells are only in the state of pulp, and all the molecular germs floating into figure, under the direction of vital and chemical impulses and attractions, being very susceptible {147} of derangement. We attribute this effect on vegetables principally to the coldness and saline matter. The depressing effect on the spirits or vital energy of man, occasioned by the eastern breeze, does not appear to be dependent on the same cause. The great rivers, the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, independent of the English rivers, throw a great quantity of decaying vegetable matter into the lower part of the German sea, which, being there only a shallow muddy gulf, may thence have its waters so far contaminated as to throw off pernicious exhalations. Or, what is much more probable, the eastern breeze, sweeping along the swamps (at this time in high evaporation, of malaria) which extend from Holland upward, and along the whole southern shore of the Baltic, and thence eastward nobody knows how far, must bear these exhalations, uncorrected, over the narrow sea which intervenes between these flats and our shores. It is even likely that a slight diffusion of saline matter from this gulf, instead of correcting, may have the opposite effect, as a small quantity of salt tends to promote putrefaction. It is evident that this miasma-atmosphere, borne across the German sea, is not pernicious to vegetables; as, when the breeze is not too cold, or too violent, they progress rapidly in growth, {148} and acquire a deep green colour: and, on the north-eastern Scotch coast, where timber suffers most, the breeze has little of that depressive influence on man, although it may derange his respiratory and transpiratory organs; while down on the shores of Suffolk and Essex, where the malaria of the breeze is greatest to man, the exposed trees receive less injury. Yet something may depend upon the electric state of this air, or upon the greater pressure of the atmosphere, which, we believe, are connected. On the exposed east coast, when it is desired to grow timber, we must estimate the most enduring kind of tree, perhaps sycamore plane, and place it to seaward, covering it as much as possible by wall, and planting other kinds under its lee. We have noticed several instances where timber throve well, without shelter, close by the sea, on our north-east coast, which we attributed to a diminished draught of the eastern breeze, owing to the configuration of the adjacent higher country.

Mr Monteath ascribes the sickliness and decay which, in many places, is perceptible in the timber of narrow belts, to the want of shelter, and recommends to form belts wider. There is some truth in this, and the advice is good, although he does not seem to be aware of the whole cause of the evil. {149} Trees in single rows thrive latterly much better than in narrow belts, because, from the planting, they are habituated to open situation, and acquire roots, branches, and stem, suited to this: whereas trees in narrow belts, from being in a thicket while young, acquire great length of stem, and roots and tops unproportionably small; and, when thinned out, and from the narrowness of the belt, exposed nearly as much, as, though in single row, they become sickly, from delicacy of constitution unsuited to this exposure, and from deficiency of roots to draw moisture commensurate to the increased evaporation. To obviate this evil, resulting from narrow belts, timely thinning, so as to retain numerous side-branches downward to the ground, of course, should be adopted. In a drier climate, or in high and exposed situation, continued forest will have great effect in promoting the luxuriance and health of timber; but in the southern part of Scotland, there are few situations, keeping away from high elevation and the eastern coast, where any of our common trees would prosper in forest, which would not grow pretty well singly, provided the plant be allowed from the first to accommodate its figure to the situation.

Mr Monteath’s system of pruning severely while {150} the trees are young, we think very prejudicial; and his restricting pruning to trees under 15 or 20 feet in height, equally erroneous. About 15 years ago, we selected a number of young trees several years planted, and low and bushy, in an open situation. We treated one half of these in a manner similar to what our author inculcates, pruning away most of the lower branches, and also any irregular top ones: and the other portion, though very bushy, we left to nature’s own discretion, merely correcting several which threw up more than one leader. The result has been, that those much pruned up have required constant attention to the top and repeated pruning, they continuing to break forth into irregular branches and numerous leaders, and thence have sustained considerable loss of growth; while those let alone, after hanging several years in bush fashion, of their own accord have thrown up fine leaders, which now form beautiful, upright stems, with sufficiency of regular lateral branches or feeders, requiring little or no attention; while the original bush at the ground, from the size and overshadowing of the superior tree, appears now so diminutive as to be unworthy of notice. We do not mean to inculcate that pruning is superfluous; on the contrary, when judiciously executed, under regulation of the purpose for which the {151} particular kind of timber may be required, it is highly useful: but the cutting off and diminishing the number of lower feeders, thence deterring the growth of the tree, and encouraging the superior feeders to push up as leaders; or to increase in size so as to render their removal, should it be necessary, dangerous to the health of the tree, and the upper part of the stem useless from large knots (a practice which in nine cases out of ten is followed), cannot be sufficiently reprobated. In pruning, every means should be taken to increase the number of feeders, in order that none of them may become too large; and no healthy regular feeder should be lopped off till the tree has reached the required height of stem, and a sufficient top above this for the purpose of growth; at which time the feeders upon the stem, as far up as this necessary height, may be removed36.

Mr Monteath states that Scots fir should not be thinned to greater distance than 20 feet apart, and larch 15 feet. This shews very little consideration: the distance apart necessary for these kinds of timber, and of all other kinds, must be relative to the soil, situation and climate, and the intentions of the owner, whether he means to bring them soon to {152} market, or carry them forward to great timber. When fir trees are intended to be early cut down, or when disease in larch from unfitness of soil may be apprehended, as it is thence of small consequence though their future ability to become great timber be destroyed by closeness, the plants should be retained pretty near each other from the first, that the timber may be tall, straight, and clean. On the other hand, when the soil is suitable and great timber intended, early attention to thinning and great openness from the first is absolutely necessary, as they (the firs), different from other trees, can never repair the loss of their lower branches by throwing out new ones from the naked stem; and double the distance stated by Mr Monteath at least for larch, which, instead of less, needs more space than Scots fir, will be required. We believe the decay of Scots fir, occurring so generally at about 40 years of age, although also dependent on inferior variety and kiln-drying of cones, arises principally from want of timely thinning; that is, that the infirm variety of Scots fir in common use, when supported by numerous feeders, and not weakened by being drawn up into a tall slender stem, will often have hardihood to continue growing, and acquire considerable size in our cold, wet, moorish tills, or even in our moorish {153} sandy flats. Many casualties will, however, occur among resinous trees37, especially in unsuitable soil, even when the plants rise from the seed naturally sown, and have sufficient room for lateral expansion. The same cause, viz. closeness or want of thinning, induces early maturity, old age and decay in larch, although it does not seem to have any influence, either as inducement to, or prevention of, the rot. We have heard men,—even men reasonable on other subjects—speak of allowing a pine wood to thin itself: as well might a farmer speak of allowing his turnip field to thin itself. When woods are planted of various kinds of timber, the stronger, larger growing kinds will sometimes acquire room by overwhelming the smaller: but when the forest is of one kind of tree, and too close, all suffer nearly alike, and follow each other fast in decay, as their various strength of constitution gives way; unless, from some negligence or defect in planting, a portion of the plants have come away quickly, and the others hung back sickly for several years, so that {154} the former might master the latter: or when some strong growing variety overtops its congeners. In the natural forest of America, when a clearance by any means is effected, the young seedlings, generally all of one kind, spring up so numerous, that, choaking each other, they all die together in a few years. This close springing up and dying is sometimes repeated several times over; different kinds of trees rising in succession, till the seeds in the soil be so reduced as to throw up plants so far asunder as to afford better opportunity for the larger growing varieties to develope their strength; and, overpowering the less, thus acquire spread of branches commensurate to the height, and thence strength of constitution sufficient to bear them forward to large trees.

Mr Monteath, apparently to encourage the destruction of young oak, and keep his merciless hatchet agoing, asserts that “oak trees, at the age of 24 or not exceeding 30 years, have as thick a rind or fleshy part of bark, as when they arrive at 50.” If by this he means to say, that the useful part of the oak bark of the stem of a tree at 50 years old is no thicker than that of one of 30, we say he is wrong, widely wrong. A thriving oak tree of 100 years will still continue to increase the thickness of the valuable part of the bark on the stem, although part of the {155} outer layers or cuticle may lose vitality, and become corky. We have taken down a luxuriant growing oak, exceeding three feet in diameter, the living bark of whose stem was about two inches in thickness, resembling thick plank, and which was considered by the tanners much stronger in quality than bark of younger growth. Has Mr Monteath seen any bark resembling this on 24 years old sproutings? If, by the above quotation, our author means to say, that the valuable part of the bark on the branches of a tree 30 years old, is equal in thickness to that on the same sized branches of a tree at 50, we say he errs still; that is, provided the older tree be in a healthy thriving condition, and growing equally open and exposed as the younger. Trees, as they increase in years, increase also in the thickness of the living bark, from the root upwards to the smallest twig, provided they have not begun to get dry and sickly from over maturity. When this period arrives, the living part of the bark upon the stem and larger branches becomes very thin, with a great proportion of dead corky substance; although, on the twigs and smaller branches, it still continues to thicken. The age at which the external part of the bark begins to lose vitality, is considerably dependant upon luxuriance of growth, climate, and exposure; and the {156} period when this loss proceeds faster than the annual increase within, is altogether dependent on the vigour of the tree, not on the age, and never takes place till the timber is ripe for the dock-yard.

We would warn the readers of Mr Monteath’s volume, that his calculations and statements regarding the worth of coppice and timber generally, seem more suited to flatter the owner’s wishes than to be useful to him as a merchant; or to be adjusted to the value of money during the late war—not to the present value. We also do not very well comprehend his re-establishment or resuscitation of life in dead trees. We observe several other slight errors, such as the duration of his paling,—and the affirmation that the sap-wood will not extend so as to cover over the section of a pruned branch which contains any red or matured wood. Most readers will be able to detect such errors as these.

In taking leave of Mr Monteath’s volume, we would offer our acknowledgment for the attention he has bestowed on the subject of the seasoning of timber, by steaming with extract of wood (pyroligneous acid) and by scorching, as prevention of dry rot. The greatest objection we see to his plan is, that all timber dried quickly is liable to crack and split, and loses a considerable portion of its {157} toughness and elasticity; at least, timber when dried slowly is harder and stronger than when dried quickly, the dryness in both cases being carried to the same extent. The comparative strength of timber scorched and timber not scorched, after both are soaked in water, as in the lower timbers and plank of vessels, should be subjected to experiment.

Our author’s directions (although the practice is also not new) to season larch by peeling off the bark one or more years previous to cutting, in order to prevent it from warping or twisting in framed housework; and his hints recommending stripping off the bark from most kinds of timber a season previous to cutting, are also deserving of notice. We greatly wonder that something efficacious has not been done in regard to dry rot by our Navy Board, and consider the subject of such importance, that we think a rot-prevention officer or wood physician should be appointed to each war vessel from the time her first timber is laid down, to be made in some shape accountable if rot to any extent should ever occur; and that this officer should be regularly bred to his profession at an institution established for the study of this branch of science at the King’s largest building yard. Perhaps it might be as well to endow several professors’ chairs at the universities to follow {158} out and lecture on this science, as being of far more importance than many which are already endowed. We think that steeping in fresh water pits for several years, till a kind of acetous fermentation take place in the timber, or till it become of a blue colour; or in tan-pits; or for a shorter period in strong brine pits; or even salting the timber like herrings, after it is blocked out; or forcing pyroligneous acid, or composition of chlorine, or other solution, antiseptic or obnoxious to life, into the pores of the timber when dry, by pressure; or perhaps by charring the timbers after they are cleaned down on the stocks ready for the plank, by playing on them a jet of flame from a flexible gas pipe,—might, some of them, be found preventive of the rot, and at same time not to impair any of the valuable qualities of the timber.

We are a little shy in committing ourselves, lest we should be impressed as a dry-rot physician or professor; but if the following plan for preservation of vessels when unemployed has not already been tried, we recommend it to the notice of our Navy Board.

Let every part of the vessel be cleared out, and every port-hole or external opening be made as air-tight as possible.

Let a quantity of recent-burned limestone {159} (lime-shells) be spread thin over every inside deck or floor, and over the whole bottom and sides of the vessel, and every door or hatch in the main-deck be immediately closed down air-tight. A number of rods or shreds of timber would require to be nailed slightly to the inside skin of the ship where the slope is considerable, in order that the lime-shells may rest and not roll down.

As soon as it is found that the lime-shells are completely slaked—become hydrate of lime—let it be sold to the farmer or house-builder, or be used in any government erection going forward at the time; and let another quantity be laid in. We would consider a sloop of 80 tons load of lime, value, prime cost and freight, about L.70, would suffice for covering the internal surface of a seventy-four gun ship. When slaked to powder, the lime might be disposed of at little loss. It is impossible, without trial, to say how often the lime would require renewal, but we think twice or thrice a-year would suffice to preserve the vessel dry and free of any corruption; perhaps even once might be found effectual. Suppose that the lime was renewed every four months, and that when slaked it only sold at two-thirds of the whole cost, the preservation of a line-of-battle ship would be nearly as follows. The price of the lime {160} and work is correct, according to the rates in most of the harbours of Scotland.

The complete efficacy of lime-shells in preventing dry-rot is already proved—the coasting small craft frequently employed in the carriage of lime-shells not being liable to it. All that requires to be ascertained, is the minimum quantity which will effect it; and if the expense of this quantity will greatly exceed the average loss by dry-rot in our unemployed {161} shipping. If the quantity necessary be not greater than what we have supposed—even Mr Hume himself would not consider the expense extravagant—the preservation of a line-of-battle ship not exceeding that of one of our numerous army captains while lying in ordinary.

Lime is preventive of dry-rot in several ways,—when uncombined as an antiseptic, simply by drying, from its attraction for water; by its causticity, which remains for a number of months after it is slaked, destroying organic life; and by its absorbing putrescent gases. It is not easy, without trial, to form a correct estimate of the quantity of moisture which would enter through the inside planking of a man-of-war; but were the bottom of the vessel in good condition, the pumps attended to, and external air excluded, we should consider that the moisture would not greatly exceed 60 tons of water yearly, which would nearly be required to convert 240 tons of lime-shells into dry hydrate of lime. No very great injury or inconvenience would be produced by the opening of the seams of the ceiling (the inside skin), or of the inner decks or floors, or by the warping of the plank, resulting from the contraction of the timber by the dryness; but the caulking of the main deck would require to be looked to. {162} No danger from fire need be apprehended, from the sudden slaking of a thin layer of shells, even though a leak in the main deck should occur. The thickness beyond which shells could not be suddenly slaked upon dry boards without danger of fire, might be tried.

It is necessary to mention, that, though lime-shells, or dry hydrate of lime, when timber is so dry as to be liable to corruption by insects or by dry rot, is, by destroying life and increasing the dryness, preventive of this corruption; yet lime, in contact with timber for a considerable time in very moist air, from its great attraction to water, draws so much moisture from the air as to become wet mortar or pulp, which, moistening the timber, promotes its decay by the moist rot.