The prayer niche, the cross panels and the main border stripe
are all characteristic of its class.
(See page 238)
The materials from which rugs are made, named in order of the ratio in which they are used, are wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, cotton, silk, and hemp.
Wool.—The wool produced in the colder provinces is softer and better than that produced in the warmer provinces. Likewise that produced at a high altitude is superior to that from a lower altitude. The quality of the pasturage plays a most important part in the quality of the wool. For this reason no better wool is to be found anywhere in the world than from the provinces of Khorasan and Kurdistan. Very often the sheep are covered over with a sheet to protect and keep the wool in a clean, lustrous condition. The quality of the wool also depends to no small extent upon the age of the sheep from which it is taken, that from the young lambs being softer and more pliable than that from the older animals. The softest and most lustrous wool is that which is obtained by combing the sheep in winter and is known as kurk. From this some of the choicest prayer rugs are made.
Goats' Hair.—From the goats of some localities, especially in Asia Minor and Turkestan, is obtained a soft down which is used to a large extent in the manufacture of rugs. The straight hair of the goat is also used. It is of a light brown color and, as it will not dye well, is sometimes used without dyeing to produce brown grounds, as in some of the Kurdistan products. It is quite commonly used as a selvage and fringe in the Turkoman products. When wet it curls so tightly that it is difficult to spin it, therefore it is not always washed. This accounts for the strong odor which is especially noticeable in warm weather.
Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat of Asia Minor, while cashmere consists of the soft under-wool of the Cashmere goat of Tibet.
Camels' Hair.—In Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan are camels which produce a long woolly hair suitable for rug weaving which is never dyed, is silky and soft, has phenomenal durability and is used quite freely in the Hamadan, Mosul, and Beluchistan products. It is more expensive than sheep's wool but has one great drawback in that on the muggy days of summer it has a disagreeable odor. Most of the alleged camels' hair of commerce is a goats' hair pure and simple.
Cotton.—The majority of the finer Persian rugs have cotton warp and woof. It makes a much lighter, better and more compact foundation on which to tie the pile, and a rug with such a foundation will hold its shape much better. Seldom is cotton used for the pile excepting once in a great while a Bokhara may be found with small portions of the white worked in cotton.
Silk.—In the regions bordering on the Caspian Sea and in some parts of China where silk is plentiful it is used to quite an extent in the making of rugs, not only for the nap but frequently for the warp and woof as well. It makes a beautiful fabric, but of course will not wear like wool.
Hemp.—Hemp is seldom used in rug making for the reason that it rots quickly after being wet and the entire fabric is soon gone.
Preparation of the Wool.—After being sorted, the wool is taken to a brook and washed thoroughly at intervals in the cold running water for several times until all foreign matters are removed, leaving the animal fat which gives it the soft, silky appearance. The results of washing depend to a certain extent upon the quality of the water used in the process, soft water giving much better results than does the hard.
After a thorough bleaching in the sun's rays it is placed in a stone vessel, covered with a mixture of flour and starch, then pounded with wooden mallets, after which it is again washed in running water for several hours and again dried in the sun. Under this process it shrinks in weight from forty to fifty per cent., and after being spun the yarn is sold everywhere for the same price as twice the amount of the raw material.
It is spun in three different ways. That which is intended for the warp is spun tightly and of medium thickness, that for the woof rather fine, and that for the pile heavy and loose.
There are so many different natural shades of wool that much of it can be utilized in its natural color. The dyeing is always done in the yarn, never in the loose fibres, and will be explained in the chapter under Dyes.
Owners' Description.—These rare rugs, so renowned for their splendid coloring, are well represented by this specimen. The very unusual shade of green, the sacred color, the deep ivory, and the rich reds and blues are blended into each other in an artistic manner.
In and above the "Mihrab" or niche will be noted the "Ubrech" or pitcher, a most interesting design. It is from this "Ubrech" that water is poured upon the hands of the Mohammedan as he makes his ablutions. Wash basins are unknown in the Orient and no follower of Mohammed will consent to wash in anything except running water.
So the "Ubrech" is almost as important as the prayer rug itself, and the four reproductions on this rug emphasize to the devout Mohammedan owner that cleanliness is next important to Godliness.
Rhodian lilies, with long stems and inverted in the frieze below the "Mihrab" or niche, are an often noted feature of the Ladik prayer rugs.
(See page 228)
The secrets of the Eastern dye-pot are responsible for the unrivalled beauty and durability of the Oriental rug. These secrets of extracting coloring matter from roots, leaves, flowers, barks, and various other vegetable and animal products by a process of boiling, fermenting, etc., were guarded religiously and descended from father to son, many of them having been lost as the family became extinct. Each dyer or family of dyers has some peculiar and secret method of producing certain shades.
Our great knowledge of chemistry has aided us little in our effort to duplicate and produce certain colors which the Orientals produced with the simplest ingredients and without any knowledge of chemistry whatever. Every kind of plant from which dyestuff is obtained is a product of geographic environment, the quality of which depends upon certain conditions of climate and soil. For this reason those of one locality may be superior to those of another. On the other hand it must not be forgotten that there are many classes of vegetable dyes which are not scientifically or honestly made.
After the wool has gone through the washing process and dried it is dipped into one or more pots, according to the shade desired, for a certain length of time, when, without being wrung out, it is hung up over the dye-pot to drip and after being washed once more in cold water it finally is spread out in the sun. Even when the same process is followed each time it is seldom that two bunches of material dyed have exactly the same shade, as the density of the dye and its shade differs somewhat with each dip of wool from a previous pot. This probably accounts in part for the innumerable shadings seen in the rugs of certain localities. Formerly the dyers employed as mordants, valonia, pomegranate rind, sumac, and the barks of certain trees, but in some districts of late they use alum. This, with the lime solution in which the wool is washed before dyeing to increase the brilliancy of the dyes, makes the yarn brittle and lessens its wearing quality. Most vegetable dyes fade, but they fade into softer and more pleasing shades. The best colors for service are, as a rule, the blues, yellows, and reds, all of which improve greatly with age. The browns are apt to lose their lustre, while the blacks, which are really mineral, being made by the action of vinegar on iron shavings, seem most corrosive and gradually eat the wool. Many of the antiques you will find in a splendid state of preservation with the exception of the black, which has eaten the pile down to the warp threads. Natural colored black and brown wools and brown camels' hair are frequently used and they are, of course, durable.
There is no doubt that the increasing demand in this country for the Eastern rug, together with the Russian influence in the Orient, tends towards more hasty commercial methods of manufacture and is, to a great extent, responsible for the introduction there of aniline dyes. The coal tar products have been readily accepted by the Eastern dyers, as they are cheaper, more easily used, and offer a greater number of brilliant shades, all of which appeal very much to the Oriental taste.
The aniline dyes are more commonly used through Asia Minor and, to some extent, in the Caucasus and even in Persia. In 1903 a law was enacted by the Persian government forbidding the importation of chemical dyes and seizing and destroying all fabrics in which they were used. It was also decreed that a dyer found guilty of using them would have his right hand cut off. The government has never been very strict in enforcing this law, else there would be at the present time many one-handed men in Persia.
As there is no such law in Asia Minor, fully seventy-five per cent. of the rugs now imported from that country are aniline dyed. The Kurdistan, Khorasan, and Kirman products, as well as those made by the Nomads in the Fars district of Persia, have been particularly free from outside influences and as a rule are honestly dyed.
The nomadic life of the Kurds in former times enabled them to gather plants more easily and so they were able to obtain good vegetable dyes. Now that they do not roam as much the result is, less vegetable and more aniline dyes. Formerly also, the best wool only was used by the Kurds for the making of rugs and the women chose only that which they knew would take the colors well. Now the men sell the best part of the wool and the women use what is left and press aniline dyes into service to hide any possible defect.
Some of the coal tar products will resist light, water, and air even better than many of the vegetable pigments, but the former have a tendency to make the wool fibres more brittle so that they break easily, while the latter preserve the wool and lengthen the life of the fabric.
Each nation uses to a large extent its favorite color, thus the Persian is partial to the dark greens and yellows, the Turk to the reds, and the Armenian to the blues. Asia Minor and Persia being countries of intense sunshine, in which the colors of the sky and land are most pronounced, the neutral tints and hues make little impression on such surroundings and are therefore little used. All the rug making people use more or less yellow, blue, orange, red, ruby, and green, excepting the Turk, who regards the latter as a sacred color and not to be trodden on. He therefore seldom uses it in any but those of the prayer design.
An expert can often distinguish between an aniline dyed rug and a vegetable dyed one merely by feeling of it, as the coal tar product robs the wool of its oil, making it stiffer, harder, and dryer. Another way to differentiate is to examine some of the white which lies next to some bright color like blue, red, orange, or green and see if it has become tinted with the brighter color. If not, wet the two and after they dry see if the white has taken any of the other color. If so it is probably aniline. In the Orient they use a string of amber beads with which to test the dyes. The beads are drawn over the surface of the rug so that the colors reflect through them. If aniline they are said to have a cloudy appearance, while if vegetable they have a clear wavy appearance. If there is any knowledge imparted by this test it certainly is only in the hands of the experienced. A vegetable dye will fade into a lighter tone of itself, while in a chemical dye some one of the colors used to make up the composite color will disappear. For instance a blue, which has been used with yellow to make green, may entirely disappear, leaving the yellow; thus in the aniline product the surface will show the changed color and the original color will show down next to the warp, while in the vegetable dyed product there will simply be two shades of the same color.
Weavers frequently choose colors according to their symbolic significance, so that they work into their rugs a sort of poetry which only the initiated can read. Thus to the Persian, the Chinese, and the Indian Mohammedan, white is an emblem of mourning; green is regarded by the Mohammedan as a sacred color and denotes immortality; blue to the Persian means air, while to the Mongolian it means authority and power; black denotes sorrow, evil, and vice; red denotes joy, happiness, life, truth, virtue, and sincerity; yellow is a Chinese color for royalty; orange is the Buddhist and Mohammedan color for sorrow, and rose for divine wisdom. The following is a list of some of the most common Oriental colors with a short description of the sources from which they are derived:
Red.—The best and most lasting is the rich carmine known as Kermes and consists of dried insects which live on a species of oak tree. These insects are collected in the month of June and are killed by being exposed to the vapors of acetic acid evolved by heating vinegar. Kermes was known to have been used in Syria in the time of Moses, and is probably the most lasting and most preservative of all dyestuffs. Of late years, however, it has been to a large extent supplemented by cochineal, which is more brilliant. Madder root, ground and boiled, is the basis of a multitude of reds and is also noted for its fastness. From it can be obtained many degrees of red from pink to intense scarlet, but the shade most commonly used by the Persians of to-day is obtained by combining madder with alum and grape juice. Although cochineal is used considerably by Eastern dyers, it is really a modern dye, being obtained from dried insects which are found on the cacti of Mexico. It gives soft, beautiful reds, is absolutely fast and is very expensive. With bichromate of potash it gives purple; with sulphuric acid, crimson and scarlet, and with madder, cherry and various shades of pink. One of the best, richest and most lasting vermilions was made by a secret process from sheep's blood, but the secret has long since been lost. In recent years many reds have had as a basis the dye woods, such as Campeachy wood, Brazil wood, and others. They are sometimes obtained from onion skins, ivy berries, beets, and other plants, but these latter pigments are not as enduring as those previously mentioned.
Blue.—Indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, to which is added alum, forms a basis of most blues and was used long before the Christian era. It is obtained from the leaves of various specimens of Indigofera which are cultivated largely in India. The deep Persian blue is obtained by applying indigo over madder. It can be compounded with almost any other dyeing material known and it is by this mixing process that beautiful violets, porcelain blues and pinks are obtained. A superb dark blue found in some of the antique Persian rugs has been in disuse for nearly a half century. The secret of making it seems to have been lost and no one has been able to reproduce it.
Green.—Indigo in combination with one of the yellows furnishes most of the greens. With buckthorn it produces Chinese greens, both bright and dull.
Brown.—Browns are most frequently obtained by mixing madder with yellow or by dyeing with madder over yellow. Valonia, catechu, gall-nuts, and the green husks of walnuts also enter largely into the making of browns.
Yellow.—The principal yellows are obtained from the Persian berries, from turmeric, from saffron and sumac roots. Persian berries give a fast dull yellow. Turmeric is from the root of a plant growing abundantly in East India and China and it gives a bright orange color. Orange yellow is also obtained from henna and by combining madder and turmeric. A light yellow is obtained from larkspur; a greenish yellow from a fungus of the mulberry, and, of late years, a buff colored yellow has been obtained from quercitron bark.
Black.—Black seems to be the only color which the rug makers of older days were unable to produce from vegetable or animal sources. The principal black used was that made from iron filings with vinegar and pomegranate rind, but it destroyed the fibres of the wool. For this reason very little black was used in the antique pieces excepting where the fleece of black sheep could be obtained. Nowadays logwood, which grows in Central America, is the essential basis of all blacks in wool, although other colors are frequently used with it to modify or intensify the shade.
Purple.—From very early times the Phœnicians were renowned for a purple which they obtained from a shellfish found in the Ægean Sea, but the secret of making it has long since become a lost art. A great many shades of purple, heliotrope and lavender are obtained from the different red dyes in combination with indigo and the dye woods as well as from the bodies of marine insects and mollusks.
Gray.—Gray is secured from Smyrna gall-nuts with copperas.
Salmon.—Salmon is obtained by mixing madder with valonia.
Violet.—Violet is frequently made from milk, sour grape juice, madder and water.
Knot: Ghiordes. Seven to the inch horizontally and eight vertically, making fifty-six to the square inch.
This rug illustrates the best Caucasian spirit in design and workmanship. It is glorious in color and its combination of blues, reds, yellows and greens belong to an age which is bygone in the textile art of Caucasia.
The Georgian design in the outer border is a Caucasian characteristic and especially of the Daghestans.
(See page 254)
The method of weaving in the Orient to-day is practically the same as it was one thousand years ago with the exception, perhaps, that there are now fewer crooked fabrics woven than in the days gone by. Next to the quality of the material from which it is made, and the dye with which it is colored, the splendid durability of the Oriental rug is due to the manner in which the pile is tied to the warp thread. It is so secure that it is impossible to remove it by pulling either end of the knot. This differs from the domestic method in which the pile is merely drawn between the warp threads without tying or fastening. In the finer fabrics of the East the knots are so close that it requires careful examination to discover them except in very old rugs where the pile is worn down, then the knot is distinctly seen.
In some parts of Persia the best artisans are men but in most other sections the weavers are mostly women and children. The latter begin working at the loom as early as four or five years of age and serve an apprenticeship of two years, after which they receive a few pennies a day. A skilful woman weaver will earn from three to six shillings a week and they usually work from sunrise to sunset, week after week, month after month, year after year. As a rule they have no education, can neither read nor write, and have absolutely nothing else to do but weave and gossip. Rug weaving proves a sort of an amusement and a source of income; besides they take a great interest in the work and the height of their ambition is to realize hope of royal recognition for their superior workmanship.
Each rug is given in charge of a master weaver who usually gets one anna (two cents) for every eleven hundred knots tied. He it is who hires and pays the weavers and makes himself responsible for the quality of the work done.
The girls, especially those of Asia Minor, frequently buy with their earnings perforated gold coins with which to decorate themselves by making them into necklaces or bracelets or by arranging them on their headgear. These coins not only serve to make known their skill as weavers, but also answer as dowries for their future husbands. A skilful weaver can tie from twelve to fourteen knots a minute or from seven to eight thousand knots a day. This would be equal to from fourteen square inches to three square feet, according to the fineness of the rug. For this she receives, on the average, nine cents a day. For a rug 10 × 6 with 182 knots to the square inch, she would receive, in rough figures, from $18.00 to $20.00, and the rug would sell in Constantinople for no less than $75.00. If the women of the Orient are ever emancipated we will have to pay much higher prices for Eastern carpets than we do now.
The Eastern loom, which is the same to-day as it was a thousand years ago, consists merely of four poles joined together by ropes according to the size of the rug to be woven. On these the warp threads are strung and kept at the proper tension by weights, which are attached to one of the cross poles.
From one to six, or even more, weavers work on a rug at the same time, according to its size. They sit cross-legged either on the floor or on a raised frame, so that their work will be on a level with their knees. Before them, as seen in the accompanying illustration, is fastened the model which they are to follow or what is known as the "talim," a chart which indicates the colors to be used and the number of knots to be tied in each color. Like expert pianists their fingers seem to know the pattern and much of the time their eyes are not even upon the work.
In many cases the head weaver sings these symbols for the benefit of the other weavers. Among the Nomads the design is frequently kept in the brain, or roughly drawn on paper or in the sand. If they have another rug as a model they get the right design by simply counting on the back the number of knots of every color in each row. Beginning at the bottom and working towards the right, the wool yarn, which goes to form the pile, is looped around the warp threads by the aid of blunt pointed needles and then tied in such a way that by each knotting two of the warp threads are bound. When the Turkish knot is used, these two threads are bound side by side. When the Persian knot is used, if tied tightly, one is bound in front of the other. This process is repeated along the line with the proper colors required by the patterns and after each row of knots one or more weft threads are passed through between the warp threads and then beaten down with a sort of comb, the teeth of which pass between the warp threads. The pile is then trimmed off with the scissors to the desired length. The Caucasians and Kurds, as a rule, leave a long pile, while the Turkomans and Persians clip theirs quite short. Close trimming brings out more minutely the color variations. The number of knots to the square inch is determined by the closeness of the warp threads and the number of weft threads thrown across after each row, also by the thickness of these threads. The tighter and closer the knots are tied the more perpendicular the pile and more durable the fabric. In coarse fabrics, like the Kazak, there are usually four or five weft threads between each row of knots. In such fabrics the rows of pile yarn overlap, thus giving it ample opportunity to untwist and become more lustrous. This is why the loosely woven, long naped rugs have more sheen than do the tightly woven short naped ones. Uneven trimming of the pile or unskilled use of the comb will produce unevenness in the completed rug.
The fewer and the lighter the weft threads are, the more flexible is the rug. The great depth of pile is also a good feature in certain rugs, as the heavier the fabric is the better it will lie. Stronger warp threads are usually put on each side to strengthen and give better support to the weft and sometimes both warp and weft are dyed, either in toto or at the ends only, in order to give a colored webbing to the finished product.
As a rule the nap of all rugs which are tied with the Ghiordes knot runs directly towards one end, while those that are tied with the Senna knot have a nap which runs towards one corner, right or left, according to whether the right or left Senna knot is employed. Frequently rugs are found with either the Ghiordes or the Senna knot where the nap runs directly towards one side. This may be due to an untwisting of the pile yarn or to the washing process, the washer in such cases having scraped the water out towards the side of the rug instead of towards the end.
The field consists of a series of medallions in dark brown and green upon a field of old rose. The main border stripe is rather foreign to the rugs of this class, being more like those found in the Bergama products. The next two important stripes carry the "crab design" while all the four guard stripes carry the conventional "saw teeth." That this piece has some age is quite evident from the condition of its ends.
(See page 272)
The soul of the Oriental is in his design, which is invariably well composed of skilfully conventionalized figures and superbly rich, harmonious colorings of which one never tires, while that of the European has a stiff set pattern which soon fails to attract.
The transmission of ancient patterns has been going on from century to century, the old designs and colorings being copied by the weavers from one generation to another and many of those used at the present time are doubtless the same that were used in the time of Abraham.
Each district, tribe or family had its characteristic patterns and color combinations which were regarded as its individual inheritance and were never copied by other districts, tribes or families. So it is possible for the expert to tell the locality from which an antique rug came, but the source of the modern one is not quite as accurately determined on account of the changes in designs brought about by the influence of immigration, travel and conquest. A design may be borrowed by a neighboring province and gradually undergo changes according to the taste of the adopting people until its original form is completely lost. The patterns have also become limited in number, so that to-day the entire output of Persian fabrics comprises only about thirty original designs, but of these the varieties of form, arrangement and combination are very large. Turkey and India have even, in some instances, adopted European designs. The Nomad products are perhaps the freest of all from outside influences.
In the way of characterization we might state that the Persian designs are usually floral, while the Turkish designs are for the most part a mixture of the floral and the geometrical, the former being much less natural than those of the Persians. Caucasian and Turkoman designs are nearly always geometrical. Occasionally they are floral but of a rectilineal nature and never connected with wavy lines as in the Persian. The Kurdish designs are more like the Persian, while the Chinese consist largely of dragons, monsters, and animals of all sorts. It is curious to note how the Persians make many patterns out of one design by employing various methods of coloring. Even when the same colors are used there is always a great dissimilarity between the different makes of the same design.
Sir George Birdwood says, "Whatever their type of ornamentation may be, a deep and complicated symbolism, originating in Babylon and possibly India, pervades every denomination of Oriental carpets." The geometrical figures, floral designs and the figures of animals and beings all carry with them a mystical, poetical idea of religious sentiment, the study of which, though difficult, is very fascinating to one who has the ability to interpret them. It seems perfectly natural that the Oriental who is so passionately devoted to symbols should profusely weave them into his fabrics. The Turks, being orthodox Mohammedans, never weave figures of animals, birds or human beings into their rugs, as the teachings of the Koran forbid it lest it should lead to idolatry. Neither do they, as a rule, make their rugs symmetrical, their idea being to symbolize the fact that only Allah is perfect. The Persians and Chinese, however, being more liberal, exercise greater freedom in these respects, and in some of their old hunting rugs, of which but few remain, are depicted animals of all kinds.
It seems strange to us that the weaver, who worked day after day for months and sometimes for years on a single piece, seldom signed or dated it. I have seldom seen the name of the weaver, of the place of manufacture, or the date, on an antique rug. Many of the modern commercial pieces are provided with dates to make them more attractive to the buyer. Inscriptions, on the other hand, are frequently found in rugs of all ages and are most frequently on the borders. As a rule they are prayers or quotations from the Koran or poems from the writings of some famous Persian poet and with but few exceptions are in the Arabic language. The ability to read these inscriptions adds greatly to the charm and interest of their possession.
The date, when present, will usually be found in one corner of the rug, sometimes in the border on one side or end, and should be read from left to right. If the spot is well worn and the figures are indistinct turn the rug over and read on the back from right to left.
The following are the Arabic figures, of which there are numerous modifications:
If we will but remember that the Mohammedan reckoning began on July 16, 622, A.D., when Mohammed made his pilgrimage to Mecca, and that the Mohammedan year consists of thirty-three days less than ours, it will be easy to find the year in our calendar corresponding to a given year in the Mohammedan. The rule is to subtract from the Mohammedan year one thirty-third of itself and add 622 to the remainder; thus, 1331 ÷ 33 = 40 (do nothing with the fraction), 1331-40 = 1291 + 622 = 1913.
The following is an alphabetically arranged list of the different designs with descriptions and suggestive drawings of the same. For that part referring to the Chinese and Indian mythology the author is greatly indebted to Prof. Du Bois Reymond of Shanghai, China, and to Mr. B. A. Gupte, F. Z. S., of Calcutta, India, respectively:
Alligator, see Kulah border design.
Almond, see Pear.
Angular Hook or Latch Hook.—A modification of the Swastika and carries the same meaning. It has been called the trade-mark of the Caucasian rugs, in which it is almost invariably used; in fact, it is apparent in nearly all of the Western Asia designs. With the Chinese the latch hook stands for privacy. (See colored plate at p. 60, also doubletone at p. 264.)
Anthemion or Hom consists of an alternate bud and fir cone arrangement with strong lateral markings. It is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree.
Apple, see Silibik.
Ball and Claw.—Similar to that used on the legs of chairs and tables of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Barber-Pole Stripe (a border design).—An alternate arrangement of diagonal stripes of red and white or blue and white, found more or less in the borders of rugs from all parts of the Orient, especially the Caucasian products. Frequently the stripes carry some small decorative pattern. (See colored plate at p. 158, also doubletones at pp. 204 and 254.)
Basket.—One of the Chinese Buddhist ornaments.
Bat.—A Chinese design which is symbolic of happiness. Found quite commonly in the Chinese fabrics. Five bats often appear in the centre of Chinese rugs and represent riches, longevity, health, love of virtue and peaceful end.
Beads.—The rosary was anciently used to record time, and a circle, being a line without termination, was the natural emblem of its perpetual continuity; hence we find circles of beads upon the heads of deities and enclosing the sacred symbols upon coins and other ornaments. Beads are always carried by the Mohammedans to assist them in their prayers. The Moslem rosary consists of ninety-nine beads, each one designating one of the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah.
Bee.—In China it is symbolic of many descendants. In India it has been adopted from British associations and represents industry, but is not regarded as an old symbol.
Beetle or Scarabæus.—A Chinese symbol of creation, resurrection or new life. In India it is a symbol of royalty. Wings of the gold beetle are used in decorating peacock feather fans and morchels or royal fly flaps. As the blue beetle it represents one that lives on honey and is portrayed near the form of a young lady whose lotus-like face it is supposed to have mistaken for that flower.
Boar.—In India a boar with a ball on its right tusk represents Vishnu the Protector in his third incarnation when he lifted up and saved the earth from being engulfed by the great flood (the deluge).
Bouquet, see Pear.
Butterfly.—The Chinese symbol of vanity. In India it was not used in the older decoration, but in modern decoration it has the associations of a flirt, owing to English environments. Butterfly forms are frequently found in Chinese rugs intermingled with those of bats.
Bow Knot.—As one of the emblems of Buddha it is used in Chinese and Japanese ornament and is often found in the border of Chinese rugs. Sometimes it partakes of a floral character in the Shiraz and Kirman rugs and is very commonly found in the Shemakha weaving, where it is a talismanic design.
Canopy.—A Chinese Buddhist symbol.
Caucasian Border Design.—So called by the author because it is seldom found in any but the Caucasian fabrics. It is a sort of an S-shaped arrangement of the latch hook design. (See doubletones at pp. 254 and 256.)