CHAPTER IV. LETTER-FOUNDING AS AN ENGLISH MECHANICAL TRADE. 1477–1830.

I T will be convenient, now that we have reached a point at which letter-founding enters upon a new stage as a distinct trade, to take a brief survey of its progress as a mechanical industry; availing ourselves of such records and illustrations as may be met with, to trace its development and improved appliances during the period covered by this narrative.

As has already been stated, the reticence of our first printers leaves us almost entirely in the dark as to the particular processes by which they produced their earliest types. Mr. Blades leans to the opinion that Caxton, in his first attempts at typefounding, adopted the methods of the rude Flemish or Dutch School, of whose conjectured appliances we have spoken in the introductory chapter. “The English printers,” he says, “whose practice seems to have been derived from the Flemish School, were far behind their contemporaries in the art. Their types show that a very rude process of founding was practised; and the use . . . of old types as patterns for new, evinces more of commercial expediency than of artistic ambition.”

At the same time, there seems reasonable ground for inferring, from the peculiarities attending the re-casting of Caxton’s Type 4 as 4*, to which allusion has already been made, that at least as early as 1480 Caxton was possessed of the secret of the punch, and matrix and adjustable mould; while the {103} excellent works of De Worde and his contemporaries demonstrate that, however rudely, the art may have begun, England was, in the early years of the sixteenth century, abreast of many of her rivals, both as to the design and workmanship of her founts.

The frequent indications to be met with of the transmission of founts from one printer to another, as well as the passing on of worn types from the presses of the metropolis to those of the provinces, are suggestive of the existence (very limited, indeed) of some sort of home trade in type even at that early date. For a considerable time, moreover, after the perfection of the art in England, the trade in foreign types, which dated back as early as the establishment of printing in Westminster and Oxford, continued to flourish. With Normandy, especially, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, a brisk commerce was maintained. Not only were many of the English liturgical and law books printed abroad by Norman artists, but Norman type found its way in considerable quantities into English presses. M. Claudin, whose researches in the history of the early provincial presses of France entitles him to be considered an authority on the matter, states that Rouen, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, was the great typographical market which furnished type not to England only, but to other cities in France and to Switzerland. “It evidently had special typographical foundries,” he observes. “Richard Pynson, a London printer, was a Norman; Will Faques learned typography from J. le Bourgeois, a printer at Rouen. These two printers had types cast expressly for themselves in Normandy. Wynkyn de Worde must have bought types in Normandy also, and very likely from Peter Olivier and Jean de Lorraine, printers in partnership at Rouen.”177 And with regard to the first printer of Scotland, M. Claudin has no doubt that Myllar learned his art in Normandy, and that the types with which his earliest work was printed were those of the Rouen printer, Hostingue.

It is reasonable to suppose that English printers would endeavour, if possible, to provide themselves, not with types merely, but with matrices of the founts of their selections; and, indeed, we imagine some explanation of the marked superiority of our national typography at the close of the fifteenth century over that of half a century later, is to be found in the fact that, whereas many of the first printers used types wholly cut and cast for them by expert foreign artists, their successors began first to cast for themselves from hired or purchased matrices, and finally to cut their own punches and justify their own matrices. Printing entered on a gloomy stage of its career in England after Day’s time, {104} and as State restrictions gradually hemmed it in, crushing by its monopolies healthy competition, and by its jealousy foreign succour, every printer became his own letter-founder, not because he would, but because he must, and the art suffered in consequence.

Of the operations of a sixteenth century letter-foundry, we are fortunately able to form some idea from the quaint engraving preserved to us by Jost {105} Amman in his Book of Trades178 in 1568, and reproduced here. The picture represents the Frankfort founder seated at his small brick furnace, casting type in a mould. This mould differs from the modern hand-moulds in being pyramidical in shape, and holding the matrix as a fixture in its interior. One of the moulds on the shelf shows a hole in the side, into which the matrix was probably inserted. From the manner in which the caster is grasping the mould, it would seem that it was bipartite, and needed the two halves holding together during casting. The cast types lying in the bowl have “breaks” attached to them, which at that date were in all probability cast so as to be easily detached. Behind the caster are some drawers, probably intended to contain matrices, of which one or two lie on the top waiting their turn for use. On the lower of the two shelves above the furnace are some crucibles, in which the metals would be mixed before filling up the casting-pan. On the upper shelf, besides three more moulds, are some sieves, suggestive of the use of sand, either for moulding large letters, or, as Mr. Blades suggests, for running the small ingots of metal into for use in the melting-pot. The small room in which this caster is operating in all probability formed part of a printing-office; and another interesting engraving of perhaps a still earlier date, which we here reproduce from the original in the British Museum,179 shows the two departments of the typo­grapher’s art going on in {106} adjoining apartments. In this case, as in the Frankfort cut, the caster is sitting; but his mould, large as it is, appears to be furnished with a spring at the bottom, more like the later hand-moulds.

In the lines accompanying Amman’s picture the founder is made to say that he casts types made of “Bismuth, Tin and Lead,” a statement which, if correct, shows that the Frankfort types of that day must have been cast in terribly soft metal, of about the substance and durability of modern solder. The presence of the crucibles, however, points to the use of some fourth metal, of sufficient hardness to require a violent heat to fuse it. The founder also states that he can correctly justify his letters, which may refer either to the dressing of the types after casting, or the more important justification of the matrix to adapt it to the mould.

Another interesting memorial of a sixteenth century foundry is to be met with in a visit to the once famous printing-office of Christopher Plantin at Antwerp.180 The foundry of the great Netherlands “Archi-typographus,” which is still preserved in its pristine condition, was on the upper floor of his house, and consisted of two rooms, one devoted wholly to the casting, the other being a store-room for types awaiting use at the press. In the casting-room is still to be seen a large brick furnace covered with an earthenware slab. To the right of this is a smaller furnace, surmounted by the metal pot, which even yet contains some of the old type-alloy. On the walls hang tongs, ladles, knives and moulds. In a box are preserved small parcels of pattern-types for setting the moulds by, among which the visitor is shown three or four types of silver.181 In another box are a {107} large number of punches182 and moulds of all sizes. A bench extends along one side of the room, doubtless for the use of the dressers or rubbers.

In all these points we recognise that even in Plantin’s day the general appointments of a letter-foundry differed very little from those of the modern foundry before the introduction of machinery. Although we have no description of any English foundry before Moxon’s time, we know that the processes in use among us boast a much earlier origin. Moxon described no new method, but the old-established practice which had obtained, if not from the infancy of the art, at least from the commencement of that gradual divorce between printing and letter-founding which led, about 1585, to the establishment of foundries for the public use. We have no reason to suppose that the foundries connected with the presses of Day, Wolfe and others differed in practice from those of their Frankfort and Antwerp contemporaries, or that when, in 1597, Benjamin Sympson, a letter-founder, gave bond to the Stationers’ Company not to cast type for the printers without due notice, he, or the founders who followed him, knew any other methods of producing their type than those already familiar to every printer at home and abroad.

Turning now to Moxon’s account of English letter-founding as it was in his day, we find no lack of detail as to every branch of the art and every appliance in use by the artist. It is not our purpose here to follow these descriptions further than as they give a general idea of the practice and method of letter-founding two centuries ago,—a practice and method which, as we have said, existed long before his day, and were destined to be in common use for nearly a century and a half after. We shall best indicate the processes and appliances he describes by giving a brief analysis of that portion of his book which is {108} devoted to the mechanics of letter-founding,183 reserving for a later chapter a general summary of the complete work.

Naturally beginning with punch-cutting, he first describes in detail the various tools made use of by the engraver, viz., the forge, the using file, the flat gauge, the sliding gauges, the face gauges, the Italic and other standing gauges, the liner, the flat table, the tach, and other furniture of the bench. Every one of these tools is to be found in the punch-cutter’s room of the present day, scarcely changed in form or use from the woodcuts which illustrate Moxon’s description.

Turning from the tools to the workman, Moxon next proceeds to describe his choice of steel for the punches; the making and striking of the counter-punches on the polished face of the punch; the “graving and sculping” of the insides of the letters; together with certain rules in the use of the gravers, small files, etc., employed in this delicate operation.

With regard to the process described as counter-punching, it is necessary to admit that this constituted a refinement of the art of punch-cutting apparently unknown to the first printers. The freedom of their letters, consequent on the imitation of handwriting, which served as their earliest models, makes it evident that they cut by eye, rather than by mathematical rule. But as typography gradually made models for itself, the best artists, particularly those who aimed at producing regular Roman and Italic letters, discovered the utility and expediency of arriving at uniformity in design and contour, by the use of these counter-punches, which stamped on to the steel the impress of the hollow portions of the letters they were about to cut, leaving it to the hand of the engraver to cut round these hollows the form of the required character.

The punches being cut, finished and hardened, Moxon next deals with the various parts of the type-mould, describing in turn the “Making” of the mould: The Carriage,184 (a); the Body, (b); the Male Gauge, (c); the Mouthpiece, (d e); the Register, (f i); the Female Gauge, (g); the Hag, (h); the Bottom Plate, (a); the Wood, (b); the Mouth, (c); the Throat, (d); the Pallat, (e d); the Nick, (f); the Stool, (g); the Spring, (h).

Here again we have described, with scarcely a difference, the mould in which scores of men yet living have in their day cast types for the trade. The {111} justification of the mould is then described; after which the important operation of striking the steel punch into copper, and forming and justifying the matrix, is treated of, with instructions for “botching” matrices in the event of a mistake in the latter process. The matrices being thus ready, the founder is instructed how to adjust them to the mould in preparation for casting,—a solemn process which may be best described in the writer’s own language:—

“Wherefore, placing the under-half of the Mold in his left hand, with the Hook or Hag forward, he clutches the ends of its Wood between the lower part of the Ball of his Thumb and his three hind-Fingers. Then he lays the upper half of the Mold upon the under half, so as the Male-Gages may fall into the Female Gages, and at the same time the Foot of the Matrice place itself upon the Stool. And clasping his left-hand Thumb strong over the upper half of the Mold, he nimbly catches hold of the Bow or Spring with his right-hand Fingers at the top of it, and his Thumb under it, and places the point of it against the middle of the Notch in the backside of the Matrice, pressing it as well forwards towards the Mold, as downwards by the Sholder of the Notch close upon the Stool, while at the same time with his hinder-Fingers as aforesaid, he draws the under half of the Mold towards the Ball of his Thumb, and thrusts by the Ball of his Thumb the upper part towards his Fingers, that both the Registers of the Mold may press against both sides of the Matrice, and his Thumb and Fingers press both Halves of the Mold close together. Then he takes the Handle of the Ladle in his right Hand, and with the Boll of it gives a Stroak two or three outwards upon the Surface of the Melted Mettal to scum or cleer it from the Film or Dust that may swim upon it. Then he takes up the Ladle full of Mettal, and having his Mold as aforesaid in his left hand, he a little twists the left side of his Body from the Furnace, and brings the Geat of his Ladle, (full of Mettal) to the Mouth of the Mold, and twists the upper part of his right-hand towards him to turn the Mettal into it, while at the same moment of Time he Jilts the Mold in his left hand forwards to receive the Mettal with a strong Shake (as it is call’d) not only into the Bodies of the Mold, but while the Mettal is yet hot, running swift and strongly into the very Face of the Matrice to receive its perfect Form there as well as in the Shanck.”

This done, the mould is opened, and the type released; Moxon adding that a workman will ordinarily cast 4,000 such letters in a day.

Then follow rules to be observed in breaking off, rubbing, kerning, setting-up and dressing, with descriptions of the dressing-sticks, block-groove, hook, knife and “plow.” That these operations, as well as the casting, had undergone no alteration nearly a century after Moxon’s day, may be judged from the fact that Moxon’s descriptions are used verbatim to accompany the view of the {112} interior of Caslon’s foundry, shown in the Universal Magazine of 1750, where all these operations are exhibited in active progress.

With regard to the preparation of the type-metal, Moxon’s account is minute and a trifle peculiar. This metal was, according to his account, made of lead hardened with iron.185 Stub-nails were chosen as the best form of iron to melt, and the mixture was made with the assistance of antimony, of which an equal amount with the iron was added to the lead, in the proportion of 3 lb. of iron to 25 lb. of lead. The great heat required to melt the iron necessitated open furnaces of brick, built out of doors, in a broad, open place, well exposed to the wind, into which the iron and antimony mixture was put in pots surrounded with charcoal. After half an hour’s time the metal men were to “lay their Ears near the Ground and listen to hear a Bubling in the Pots,” which is the sign that the iron is melted. They then were to erect another small furnace, “on that side from whence the Wind blows,” which was to contain the large pot full of lead. The lead being melted, they were to carry it at a great heat, with a “Labour would make Hercules sweat,” to the open furnace, filling up the pots of iron and antimony with the lead, and stirring at the same time. The open furnace was to be then demolished, and the mixed metal left to cool in the pots. And “now,” says Moxon, “(according to Custom), is Half a Pint of Sack mingled with Sallad Oyl provided for each Workman to Drink; intended for an Antidote against the Poysonous Fumes of the Antimony, and to restore the Spirits that so Violent a Fire and Hard Labour may have exhausted.”

Such is a brief account of the practice of typefounding in Moxon’s time. Of the trade customs of the day our author also presents us with a curious picture, in his account of the Chapel.

“A Founding-House,” he says, “is also call’d a Chappel: but I suppose the Title was originally assum’d by Founders to make a Competition with Printers. The Customes used in a Founding-House are made as near as maybe those of a Printing-House; but because the Matter they Work on and the manner of their Working is different, therefore such different Customes are in Use as are suitable to their Trade, as:—

“First, To call Mettle Lead, a Forfeiture.

“Secondly, A Workman to let fall his Mold, a Forfeiture.

“Thirdly, A Workman to leave his Ladle in the Mettle Noon or Night, a Forfeiture.” {113}

We are given to understand that in the case of other offences, common to both printing and typefounding, such as swearing, fighting, drunkenness, abusive language, or giving the lie in the chapel, or the equally heinous offence of leaving a candle burning at night, the journeyman founder was liable to be “solaced” by his fellow-workmen, in the same hearty and energetic way which characterised the administration of justice among the printers.

After Moxon’s time we meet with numerous accounts of foundries and their appointments. The interesting inventory of the Oxford foundry, appended to the specimen of the press in 1695, gives a good idea of the extent of that establishment. There were apparently two casters, two rubbers, and two or three dressers, and the foundry possessed twenty-eight moulds. The punches were sealed up in an earthen pot, possibly to protect them from rust or injury; or possibly, because having once served their purpose in striking the matrices, they were put aside as of little or no use. The small value put upon punches after striking is constantly apparent about this period. Very few punches came down with the foundries which were absorbed by that of John James; and of those that did, the greater portion were left to take their chance among the waste as worthless. The small value set upon the punches of Walpergen’s music, in the inventory of his plant,186 shows that they were considered the least important of his belongings. Matrices did not wear out in the old days of hand-moulds and soft metal, as they do now under steam machines and “extra hard”; but the liability to loss or damage, and the importance of protecting and preserving the steel originals of their types, can hardly have been less with the founders of a century and a half ago than it is to-day.

The entertaining letters of Thomas James from Holland, in 1710,187 point to a curious practice in that country, which we believe has never obtained in this. We refer to the habit of lending casters and matrices by one founder to another. In each of the two foundries he visited there were places for four casters; but in one case only one man was at work, and in the other no one was to be found, for this reason. This system of interchange is hardly consistent with the jealousy and suspicion shown by the same Dutch founders towards their English rival in his endeavours to procure sets of matrices from their punches. In this endeavour, however, he succeeded, much to his own satisfaction. He also purchased moulds, which, like all the other Dutch moulds he saw, were made of brass. Voskens’ foundry, which he visited, appears to have been “a great business, having five or six men constantly at the furnace, besides boys to rub, and himself and a brother {114} to do the other work.” He also found artists who, like Cupi and Rolij, were punch-cutters only, not attached to any one foundry, but doing work for founders generally. Van Dijk was a cutter only, who kept a founder of his own named Bus, and this founder cast, not at his own or Van Dijk’s house, but at the house of Athias, by whom probably he was also engaged. The Voskens, who succeeded Van Dijk, did their own casting, but their punches and matrices were supplied them by Rolij, who, as an independent artist, was free to sell duplicate matrices of his letters to James. This division of letter-founding into one or more trades, though common abroad, was never a common practice in England, where jealousy and lack of enterprise conspired to keep each founder’s business a mystery known only to himself.188

In the course of this book we shall have constant occasion to point out the intimate relations which existed at the beginning of the eighteenth century between English printers and Dutch founders. There was probably more Dutch type in England between 1700 and 1720 than there was English. The Dutch artists appeared for the time to have the secret of the true shape of the Roman letter; their punches were more carefully finished, their matrices better justified, and their types of better metal, and better dressed, than any of which our country could boast. Nor was it till Caslon developed a native genius that English typography ceased to be more than half Dutch.

Thiboust’s quaint Latin poem on the excellence of printing,189 though throwing little new light on the practice of the art, is worth recording here, not only for the description it gives of letter-founding in France at the time, but for the sake of the curious woodcut which accompanies it. The latter represents a round furnace in the centre of a room, surmounted by a metal pot, at which two casters are standing, with ladle and mould in hand. The moulds, of which a number are to be seen in a rack against the wall, are almost cubic in shape, and apparently without the hooks shown in Moxon’s illustration. One of the casters is holding his mould low, as in the act of casting. A workman sitting on a stool is setting up in a stick the newly-cast type from a box on the {115} floor—possibly breaking them off at the same time. Beyond is a dresser grooving out the break in a stick of types.

Of the portion of the poem devoted to letter-founding,190 we venture to give the following rough translation:— {116}

A still more satisfactory view of an eighteenth century foundry is to be found in the Universal Magazine of 1750. This engraving, of which our frontispiece is a facsimile, represents the interior of Caslon’s foundry, with the processes of casting, breaking-off, rubbing, setting-up, and dressing, all in operation. The casting is specially interesting, in the light of Moxon’s graphic account of the attitudes and contortions of the caster. Unlike their French brethren, each of Caslon’s casters stands partitioned off from his neighbour, with a furnace and pan to himself. One of them is dipping his ladle in the pot for a new cast; the next holds his mould lowered, at the commencement of a “pour”; the third has evidently completed the upward jerk necessary to force the metal into the matrix; and the fourth, with his mould again lowered, is apparently throwing out the type and preparing for the next casting.

A set of three views of the interior of a French foundry, from an Encyclopædia191 of about this date, presents a few interesting points of contrast between foreign and English methods. In the first view the process of punch-cutting is displayed.192 One man is finishing a punch with his file; another is striking a counter-punch (with perhaps undue energy) into the steel face of a punch; while the third, at a large forge, is hammering a piece of steel in readiness for the engraver. The second view shows metal making, casting, breaking-off, and {117} rubbing, in operation. There are two men at the large furnace, one watching the melting of antimony in a crucible, the other pouring off the mixed metal into ingots. At the small metal pot with three divisions, in the centre of the room, are three casters, one of whom is about to cast, another has finished his “throw,” and the third is loosening his spring so as to open the mould. At the table in the rear sit two girls, one breaking off, the other rubbing. The third view represents a dressing-room, where a girl is setting up the rubbed types on a stick. The dresser is ploughing the “break” from the foot of a stick of types, which is placed in the blocks, not lengthways along the bench, but across it. An apprentice sitting at the table completes the dressing, holding one end of the stick tilted while he passes his scraper over the front and back of the row of types. Drawings of all the tools and parts of tools used in typefounding complete the illustration.

Fournier, the French Moxon, in 1764 devoted the latter part of vol. i of his Manuel Typographique193 to the appliances and instruments used in type-casting. His work enters in detail into the form and use of every tool used in every department of the trade, from the cutting of the punch to the storage of the finished types, giving careful and accurate woodcuts of each. Allowing for a few national peculiarities, and certain improvements in casting, there is scarcely anything but the date of the book to distinguish it from a mechanical handbook to typefounding in the middle of the nineteenth century.

The operations of punch-cutting and justifying appear to have been kept a mystery from the earliest days of the trade. To lay minds, the one work of the founder was to cast types; but the preliminary operations on which his whole reputation as a founder depended, were little understood by any but the founder himself. And even he, as in the case of the first two Caslons, carried on this part of the mystery stealthily, and with closed doors even against his own apprentices. In many cases, especially with the originators of the great foundries, Caslon, Cottrell and Jackson, it was the master himself who designed and cut his own punches. It was not till the unusual demand for artists at the close of last century broke down this exclusiveness that outsiders arose to work for the trade in general. And even these, it was the policy and endeavour of each founder to attach to himself, treating him as a gentleman at large, and free from the obligations imposed on his other workmen.

The Rules and Regulations of Thorne’s Foundry, printed about the year 1806, give an interesting glimpse into the internal economy of a foundry of that period. After fixing the prices to be paid for work (for casting, rubbing, and kerning were {118} all paid by “piece”), they provide that the dressers shall have 25s. a week, “abiding by the old custom of leaving work at four o’clock on Mondays. Each man to dress after four casters.” The fines for “foot-ale” imposed on new hands are ordered to be deposited with the master, who is to keep an account of the same, and divide it equally among the men at Christmas. The foundry hours are from six in the morning to eight in the evening in summer, and from seven to eight in winter, “beginning when candle-light commences.” The dressers are to work from seven to eight in summer, and eight to eight in winter. Any man losing or damaging a mould, matrix, or tool, to make good the loss on the following Saturday. Any man leaving his lamp or candle alight after hours is to pay 6d., and the master for a similar offence is to fine himself 1s. Rubbers must grind their stones once a fortnight, “if requested to do so either by the master or foreman.” No work to be taken out of the foundry. Casters and rubbers must take their turn at carrying in metal. Breaking-off and setting-up boys shall earn 10d. a week for each man they set-up after. Many of these customs are traditional, and survive at the present time.

Conservatism, indeed, has been a marked feature in the history of British letter-founding. Between 1637 and 1837 the number of important foundries rarely exceeded the limit prescribed by the Star Chamber decree of the former year. The methods and practice of the art, as we have seen, remained virtually unchanged during the whole period. The traditional customs, the trade argot, the relations of men to men, and men to masters, even the tricks and gestures of the caster, suffered nothing by the lapse of two centuries. The relations of the founders among themselves during the period underwent more vicissitudes. At all times jealous of their mystery, they mistrusted in turn the printers and one another. As the new school of Caslon and his apprentices rose up to oust the old Dutch school of James, mutual antagonism was the order of the day. The literary duel between the Caslons and the Frys was perhaps the least injurious outcome of this spirit. This antagonism resolved itself, at the close of last century, into a combination of London founders against their rising Scotch competitors. An Association was formed in 1793, which continued for three years. In 1799 it was re-formed, and this time lasted four years; and again in 1809 it was revived and continued till 1820, when it terminated. In the early days of this Association the lady Caslons took a prominent part in its deliberations, which, however, frequently consisted of little more than the imposition of fines for non-attendance. The prices of type during this period, chiefly owing to the fluctuations in the value of metals during the French war, were constantly changing. Pica in 1793 was 1s. 1 ½d. a pound, in 1800 1s. 4d., in 1810 3s., and in 1816 (after the price of antimony had gone down from £400 to £200 a {119} ton), 2s. The Scotch founders, however, joined presently by the Sheffield houses, continued to underbid the London founders in their own market; and at one time a combination of all the English houses existed in opposition to the unfortunate new foundry of the Frenchman, Pouchée.

Our survey does not extend beyond the year 1830, but before concluding this hasty outline of the progress of letter-founding as a mechanical trade, it will be interesting to notice the gradual changes in the process of casting which led to the final abandonment of the venerable hand-mould in favour of machinery.

We cannot do better than give a brief summary from the Patent Book194 of the chief improvements proposed to be made in typefounding prior to 1830, premising that many of the schemes advanced no further than the proposal, and that some of the most important improvements which actually did take place were not registered in the Patent Book at all.

• 1790.—WILLIAM NICHOLSON proposed to cast type in the usual manner, except that instead of leaving a space in the mould for the stem of the letter only, several letters are cast at once in ordinary moulds, communicating by a common groove at the top. The types are also to be scraped in dressing, so as to render the tail of the letter gradually smaller the more remote it is from the face; thus enabling them to be set imposed upon a cylindrical surface.

• 1790.—ROBERT BARCLAY. A method of making punches on broken steel, the irregular figures in the grain of which will effectually obviate counterfeit. Punches may be formed of steel broken as above, by cutting, drilling, punching, bending parts of the letters, and leaving the grain of the steel to form the lines or strokes; and in this way complex founts of type might be cast, every letter of which would vary in its lines from every other.

• 1802.—PHILIP RUSHER.195 Improvements in the form of printing types. Each capital letter, with few exceptions, should be comprised in the compass of an oval. Each small letter is to be without tail-piece or descender, and the metal (both in small letters and capitals) is to extend no lower than the body of the letter. The letters above the line have their heads shortened or lowered about one-third.

• 1806.—ANTHONY FRANCIS BERTE. A machine for casting type. The casting is performed by applying the mould to one of several apertures in the side of the metal pot, through which, by the removal of a lock or valve, the metal is made suddenly to flow into the mould with a force proportionate to the height of the surface of the type-metal in the vessel.196 {120}

• 1806.—ELIHU WHITE. A machine for casting types; consisting of a matrix-box containing a certain number of matrices, which is applied to a complex mould having a similar number of apertures, through which the metal is poured, thus forming several types at one operation.

• 1807.—ANTHONY FRANCIS BERTE. Improvements on his former patent. The metal is forced through the aperture by means of a plug or piston, and the machine is so contrived as to regulate the quantity of metal ejected at each application of the mould.

  Another improvement consists of making the body of the mould in four adjustable pieces instead of two, which will admit of changes in the body, as well as the thickness of the types. The moulds are without nicks,197 and the type, when cast, is expelled by a punch or other tool, without opening the mould.

• 1809.—JOHN PEEK. A machine for the more expeditious casting of types, by which three motions out of the five ordinarily made use of in casting, are saved. This consists in the addition of two parts to the ordinary hand-mould; that to the upper part being a plate with a socket in which the matrix is suspended on pivots, and that to the lower part being a bolt which presses the matrix to the mould, where it is kept by a spiral spring round the bolt, and by the withdrawal of which the matrix is tilted, another spiral spring keeping it in that position till the mould recloses. The bolt is worked by a lever.198

• 1812.—WILLIAM CASLON. An improved printing type. The face or letter part of the type is made of the usual thickness, and in the usual way, “but the body, which is commonly made about seven-eighths of an inch, I make only three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness; and the front of the said body I make sloping or bevelling upwards from the outer side towards the face, as well as the opposite side or back, by which means the upper part of the body is about one-eighth of an inch narrower than the under part of the same.” These short types are raised to the requisite height to paper by stands of the necessary thickness. “Or the body may, without being bevelled, be fixed by nails or otherwise, upon blocks of wood of a proper width and height. Or the stands may be made of the whole width of the body of the type, with only one projecting part, the other being screwed on after the types are put on the stands. The advantage of these types is in economy of weight and space; the former being one-half, and the latter one-third to one-half of the ordinary types.”

• 1814.—AMBROISE FIRMIN DIDOT. An improvement in the method of making types. In Roman text, running hand or any other hand consisting more or less in hair strokes or fine lines, from letter to letter, the projecting extremities of each letter are extended so as to form a join with the next. In the case of inclined letters “I do, by suitable alteration in my moulds, cast my types and the beards and shanks or tails thereof with the same or nearly the same inclination or slope of surface as aforesaid; and to prevent such types sliding upon each other {121} when set up, a protuberance or projecting part is cast on one face, and a cavity or indentation corresponding to it in the opposite one; or otherwise I do, by angular or curved deviations from, in, or as to the straight direction of the said surfaces, render it impossible that any sliding should take place between the same.”

• 1816.—ROBERT CLAYTON. A new method of preparing metal . . . types. The specification mainly relates to plate-printing, but concludes: “Thirdly, I obtain what I shall term alto or high-relief, by producing metal castings from wooden moulds or matrices, punched in wood with a cross-grain, which has been previously slightly charred or baked.”199 The metal is bismuth, tin and lead in equal parts, or tin (4), bismuth (4), lead (3), and antimony (1).

• 1822.—WILLIAM CHURCH. Machine for casting the types and arranging them ready to be transferred to the composing machinery. A matrix-bar containing a series of matrices is applied to a mould-bar, with a corresponding number of moulds. At the time of casting the latter is applied to jets leading from the metal chest, which is supplied from a metal fountain connected with the metal pot, and furnished with a valve to prevent the return of the metal. After the casting, the mould-bar, drawn endways, cuts off communication with the metal, and brings the said types beneath a series of punches, which descend and force them out at the same time that the matrix-box is unlocked, and descends clear of the types . . . The mould-bar is kept cool during the process by a stream of water passing through it . . . The metal is injected by the descent of a plunger into the metal chest. The type, as cast, is carried direct into a composing machine, where it is set up by means of a mechanism worked by keys, resembling the notes of a piano.200

• 1823.—LOUIS JOHN POUCHÉE201 (communicated by Didot of Paris). Machine calculated to cast from 150 to 200 types at each operation, the operation being repeated twice or oftener in a minute. The moulds are composed of steel bars. The first has horizontal grooves at right angles to its length, and forms the body of the letter. The second is a matrix-bar, screwed to the bottom of the first. The third bar forms the fourth side of the type-body. The feet of the type are made by the fourth, a “break bar,” with orifices communicating with each type-mould. Two of these moulds are placed side by side so as to form a trough between them, in which the molten metal is poured, nearly as high as the orifices on the “break bar.” On pulling a trigger by a string, a plunger at the end of a lever falls into the trough, and injects the metal into the moulds. The lever is slightly raised after the casting, by a treadle, after which the workman raises it by hand until it passes a catch, which retains it until the string is pulled again. The mould is then unclamped, the mould-bars drawn asunder by wrenches, the types are found adhering to the break bar like the teeth of a comb, when they are broken off and dressed in the usual way.

• 1823.—JOHN HENFREY AND AUGUSTUS APPLEGARTH. Cer­tain ma­chi­ne­ry for cast­ing types. The type is cast in a space between two flanges, set at right angles on a spindle, and pressed to and drawn from one another alternately by a spring and a peculiarly arranged eccentric piece. A piece of steel, called the “body,” adjustable to the thickness of the particular type, is screwed to one of the flanges. The matrix is on a carriage, and is run through holes in the flanges for the casting, and kept in its place by a spring. The metal is {122} injected by the descent of a plunger, which recovers itself by a spring. After the casting the spindle begins to revolve, immediately upon which the matrix is disengaged from the type and withdrawn clear of the flanges. The flanges are then opened, and the cast type pushed from the mould by the action of spring pins. A type is thus cast for each revolution of the spindle. The “break” is disengaged from the letter by two small pins, one of which protrudes from each jaw after the casting.202

• 1828.—THOMAS ASPINWALL. An improved method of casting types, by means of a “Mechanical Type Caster.” The working parts of this machine are mounted on a table suspended so as to move to and from the melting-pot. The mould is in two parts, mounted on two sliding “carrier pieces” on the table, inclined to each other at a slight angle. The matrix is held during the casting by a spring. On the revolution of the crank shaft (by hand) a sliding rod on the table is made to move towards the melting-pot, and the carrier pieces being acted upon by a cross-bar attached to it by springs, are drawn forward so as to unite the two parts of the mould for the casting. By a further revolution of the crank shaft, a projecting piece on the end of the sliding rod, coming in contact with an adjusting screw on one end of a bent lever, causes it to turn on its centre, and by a friction roller at the other end forces down the plunger of a cylinder com­mun­i­cat­ing with the metal pot, so as to inject the metal into a chamber, whence it ejects a portion previously there through a nozzle into the mould as it is moved forward by the forward motion of the table. The handle of the crank is then turned the reverse way, the table swings back from the metal pot, the plunger rises by a spring, the parts of the mould separate, the matrix is withdrawn from the cast type by a lever (which overcomes the force of the spring by which it is held during the casting), and the type itself loosened from the mould by coming in contact with an inclined plane.

We conclude these extracts with a proposal suggestive more of the primitive experiments of the first printers than of nineteenth century letter-founding.

• 1831.—JAMES THOMSON. Certain improvements in making or producing printing types. “My improvements consist in making printing types by casting or forming a cake of metal having letters formed and protruding on one side of it, and in afterwards sawing this cake directly or transversely, so as to divide it into single types.” The casting is effected in two ways. First by forming a mould from types set up, and immersing this within an iron box in a pot of melted type-metal, “as in making stereotype plates; with this difference, however, that in the present case, the plate must be as thick as the length of the intended type; and further, that in setting up the types for the cast, proper spaces must be made between each letter and between the lines, in order to allow for what will be taken away in the sawing.” The second mode is “by taking a plate of copper or other suitable metal, and making in it indentations or matrices with a punch having on it the letter for the intended type, taking care to make them in straight rows, direct and transverse. The plate being so indented, is put into an iron box and immersed in a pot of liquid type-metal, and kept there the proper depth and proper time, so as to enable the metal fully to enter into those indentations or matrices, that the letter may be well formed. The cake thus cast or formed, after being taken out and cooled, is sawed as before.”