Engelbert Humperdinck.
Humperdinck.—Engelbert Humperdinck (Bonn, Germany, 1854) won a remarkable success with his Folk-opera “Hänsel and Gretel,” a work which has almost founded a new school in Germany. Humperdinck studied architecture at first, but at Hiller’s advice took up music. “Hänsel and Gretel” is the story of two poor children who are left in the woods by their stepmother. They find a gingerbread house, inhabited by a witch who wishes to eat them; but Gretel pushes her into her own oven, and frees all the children previously under her spells. The greatness of this work, like that of Weber’s operas, in their day, lies in its union of the popular Folk-song style with the richness of modern orchestration. The music is fresh and tuneful, with an appealing sincerity that carries it directly to the heart. At a period when other composers seemed able to produce nothing but weak imitations of Wagner’s operas, this work won universal recognition. Humperdinck has produced several other fairy operas, such as “Dornröschen,” “Die Königskinder,” “Saint-Cyr,” and “Die Sieben Geislein,” but none of them has gained any lasting success.
Kienzl.—Another composer of originality is Wilhelm Kienzl (Waizen-Kirchen, Austria, 1857). He studied at Graz, Prague, Leipzig, and, finally, with Liszt, at Weimar. He, too, served as conductor in small theatres. His first opera, “Urvasi,” is based on an East Indian subject. Its music is brilliant, but lacking in dramatic effect. “Heilmar der Narr” deals with the magic healing qualities of a seventh son, who forfeits his power if rewarded; he cures his sweetheart, but loses his gift because he wins her, whereupon she sacrifices herself to bring back his skill. Kienzl’s greatest work is “Der Evangelimann,” treating of a true story of two brothers in a small Austrian hamlet. Both love the same girl, Martha, but she prefers Mathias. Johannes, out of jealousy, sets fire to a house where the lovers are meeting, and denounces Mathias as the incendiary. Martha tries in vain to save him, and he is imprisoned for twenty years. At the end of this term, Johannes, who has been prosperous and respected, is confronted on his death-bed by Mathias, who forgives him. This opera has been given in many countries, and translated into several languages. Its music shows much dramatic force, and goes far to redeem those scenes in the libretto that are lacking in action. A fourth opera by Kienzl is the tragi-comedy “Don Quixote.”
Schillings.—Among the composers who have modelled their works on those of Wagner is Max Schillings (Düren, Germany, 1868). He studied law at first, like Schumann, but soon turned to music, and became one of Wagner’s active assistants at Bayreuth. His “Ingwelde” is one of the many Viking operas that have followed in the lead of “Tristan and Isolde,” and aimed at effects of dramatic power. Ingwelde is forced by a careless oath to follow Klause, enemy of her husband, Gest. Bran, Klause’s brother, loves her also, and kills Klause. She returns to Gest, but Bran follows and kills him too, after which the pair die together. “Der Pfeifertag,” a later work, is evidently inspired by “Die Meistersinger.” It is a confused account of various adventures on “Pipers’ Day,” a mediæval festival. The chief episodes are the reduction of an excessive toll paid by the pipers, the pretended death of one of that Guild, who thus obtains a eulogy from a rival, and the union of two pairs of lovers. The music, though worthy, can hardly stand comparison with that of the great work upon which the opera was modelled.
Cyrill Kistler (Augsburg, Germany, 1848) was at one time thought to be Wagner’s real successor, but nearly all his works are now laid aside. They show an evident striving after musical grandeur, but are not wholly successful in attaining that effect. Kistler studied with Lachner and others at Munich, but became a Wagner enthusiast in spite of their formal training. In his first opera, “Kunihild,” the heroine is wooed by one of three brothers, who is successful in the magic ride necessary to win her. But there has been a feud between the houses, and another brother, to prevent the marriage, kills the bridegroom. A comic opera, “Eulenspiegel,” preceded by ten years the symphonic poem of Strauss. “Baldurs Tod” is based on the beautiful Norse Saga of the Sun-God. “Im Honigmond” is a smaller work, in romantic style. A more important production in the same vein is “Röslein im Hag,” which bids fair to be successful. “Der Vogt von Mühlstein” is a work of still more recent date.
August Bungert (Mühlheim, Germany, 1846) studied at Cologne and Paris, taking up composition at Berlin under the renowned Fr. Kiel. He has produced a light opera, “Die Studenten von Salamanca,” a “Tasso” overture, and the symphonic poem “Auf der Wartburg.” But his life-work has been the composition of a Hexalogy, or set of six operas, on Homeric subjects. The first two, “Achilles” and “Klytemnestra,” are from the Iliad, while the Odyssey furnishes the material for “Kirke,” “Nausikaa,” “Odysseus Heimkehr,” and “Odysseus Tod.” The abiding beauty of the old Greek poems has been faithfully preserved in the librettos, and the music has reflected, to some degree, the noble dignity of these epics. The first three works of the Odyssey cycle have been given, and have produced an excellent impression on the critics.
Siegfried Wagner.
Siegfried Wagner (Triebschen, Switzerland, 1869), son of the immortal Richard, has an undoubted right to carry on the family traditions. He studied with Kniese and Humperdinck, and became a very energetic conductor. His first opera, “Der Bärenhäuter,” is the story of a mediæval soldier who sells himself to the devil, but is redeemed by finding a sweetheart who will remain true during three years of absence. “Herzog Wildfang,” the next work, treats of a fiery duke who is made unpopular and supplanted by his crafty adviser, Mathias Blank. Mathias is afterward caught in trying to win the beautiful Osterlind by trickery, and his dishonesty in office is also exposed; whereupon the rightful duke comes to his own again, and Osterlind marries her real lover. “Der Kobold,” a third work, treats of the legend that the souls of murdered children wander about as kobolds until released by the sacrifice of the last of their race. “Bruder Lustig,” the fourth opera, is based on an Austrian subject.
D’Albert.—In Eugen d’Albert (Glasgow, Scotland, 1864), we find a man of real musical gifts. He studied under such men as Stainer and Prout in England, but he claims that his true musical education began only in later days, under Richter and Liszt. He has won international fame as a pianist, and has shown real musicianship in his purely orchestral works. These include two concertos for piano, one for violoncello, the “Esther” and “Hyperion” overtures, and a worthy symphony; all showing harmonic beauty and richness of color, without any inflation or exaggerated effects. His first opera, “The Ruby,” tells of a princess imprisoned in the form of that magic gem, but released by a poor young man who wins her. “Ghismonda” deals with the love of a princess for a young man of low degree, but noble character. On being surprised with the princess, he dies rather than reveal her love for him, but she proclaims his chivalry to the world. “Gernot” is an elfin opera, with much delicate music. “Die Abreise” shows the reconciliation of a married couple who have begun to drift apart, and the departure of the over-amorous cavalier who tried to widen the breach for his own purposes. “Kain” is a weirdly effective one-act drama, of the realistic school. “Der Improvisator” has for its libretto a rather weak arrangement of Hugo’s “Angelo, Tyrant of Padua,” while “Tiefland” is founded on a Spanish tale, in which true love triumphs over the schemes of a wicked Alcalde.
Hugo Wolf (Vienna, Austria, 1860—Vienna, 1902) had a constant struggle with poverty, and enjoyed but a short period of fame before yielding to insanity and death. His opera, “Der Corregidor,” is a delightful work, in comic vein, and the humorous scenes on the stage are treated with remarkable animation and skill in the orchestra. The Corregidor is a Spanish magistrate, who is too much smitten with Frasquita, the beautiful wife of the miller, Tio Lucas. The pair play him many tricks, and the opera ends with his discomfiture before his own consort. Wolf’s fame is much increased by the rare power and beauty of his many songs. Especially worthy of note are the “Feuerreiter,” “Gebet,” “Gesang Weylas,” and the “Italienisches Liederbuch.” His symphonic poem, “Penthesilea,” is another important work. His style is sometimes bizarre and involved, but his themes are always effective and significant.
Other Composers.—Max Bruch (Cologne, Germany, 1838) studied under Hiller, Reinecke, and Breuning. His chief opera, “Hermione,” is not important, but he has won lasting fame by the breadth and nobility of his epic cantatas, such as “Frithjof,” “Odysseus,” “Arminius,” and others. His concertos and serenade for violin are favorite works with soloists. Ludwig Thuille, a friend of Strauss, is given high praise by musicians, and his new opera “Gugeline” has been well received. Heinrich Zollner has won a popular success by his setting of Hauptmann’s delicate play, “The Sunken Bell.” Hans Pfitzner has produced an excellent work in his romantic forest-opera, “Die Rose vom Liebesgarten.” Leo Blech’s “Alpenkönig und Menschenfeind” has received numerous performances, while E. Klose’s fairy opera, “Ilsebill,” is a worthy example of its school.
Opera in Germany.—Since Wagner’s time, there has been no striking development in German opera, and his works still remain by far the most important in that field. None can rival him in the power, variety, and expressive qualities of his music. Strauss surpasses him in intricacy and novelty of instrumental effects, but Wagner himself first cleared the path in which Strauss was to follow. The greatest successes of Goldmark are those of twenty and thirty years ago. Humperdinck’s one chief work is frankly popular in style, and its attractiveness cannot fairly be compared with the grandeur of the music-dramas, even though it should found a school of its own. Bungert’s works, though well received, have not been given many performances, while many of those who have tried to imitate Wagner have echoed merely his outward mannerisms, and not the inward greatness of his works. It must be remembered, however, that a world-genius like that of Wagner does not appear in every country or every century, and that his importance prevents his successors from gaining their full meed of appreciation.
Questions.
Give a sketch of Carl Goldmark and his works.
In what style of opera has Humperdinck been most successful?
Give an account of Kienzl and his most important works.
Whose works seem to have furnished models for Max Schillings’ operas?
Give an account of the works of Kistler.
What is the great work of August Bungert?
Give the stories of Siegfried Wagner’s operas.
Give an account of Eugen d’Albert and his works.
Give an account of Hugo Wolf’s works.
What other composers have done important work in this field?
Summarize the work of the leading composers mentioned in this lesson.
Vincent D’Indy. César Franck.
Camille Saint-Saëns. Jules Massenet.
Saint-Saëns.—The end of the 19th century in France has been marked by a decided contrast between the old and the new, Saint-Saëns and Massenet writing in the older style, while the pupils of Franck have striven after novelty in effect. Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns (Paris, France, 1835) witnessed the rise and fall of Meyerbeer, and the triumphs of Gounod, and was himself famous before the influence of Wagner reached France. His style is marked by great diversity, and displays equal skill in many different veins; but his music always shows the utmost facility of expression, a mastery of the technic of composing, and a remarkable ease and fluency. His has been a true musical development, founded on rational lines. He was always a warm admirer of Bach, Beethoven, and the Classical school, and while he appreciated Liszt, Wagner and other modern masters, he did not abandon the old ideas of form and melody. His works show the most exquisite symmetry of detail, like that of a finely-carved monument enriched by delicate tracery.
His Works.—Saint-Saëns studied at the Conservatoire, under Stamaty, Halévy, and Benoist. Though he failed in trying for the Prix de Rome, he produced a worthy symphony when only sixteen. In opera, his first success was the Biblical “Samson and Dalila,” a work of expressive power and vivid coloring. “Le Timbre d’Argent” and “La Princesse Jaune” are of earlier date. “Le Deluge,” is an operatic cantata. “Etienne-Marcel” won some success in Paris, while “Henry VIII” is a skilful blending of old and new styles. “Proserpine” and “Ascanio ” followed, while “Phryne” is a dainty example of opéra comique. “Parysatis,” “Déjanire,” and “Les Barbares” introduce grandiose effects for open-air performances. “Helène” is a shorter work, again on a Grecian subject. The composer’s versatility and smoothness of style prevent him from obtaining the highest dramatic intensity, but his music is always excellent. In the orchestral field, he has produced four later symphonies, five piano concertos (that in G minor being the favorite), and two suites. His symphonic poems include “Le Rouet d’Omphale,” a delicious orchestral spinning-song; “Phaeton” and “La Jeunesse d’Hercule,” also on mythical subjects; and the weird “Danse Macabre.” His violin concerto in B minor is a great favorite.
Massenet.—Jules Emile Frederic Massenet (Montreaux, France, 1842) is another Conservatoire pupil. Rejected at first by Bazin, as lacking talent, he worked steadily onward, and from a player in small cafés became one of the foremost figures in French music. His first great triumph came with “Marie Madeleine” and “Eve,” which are not strictly oratorios, but are more properly called sacred dramas. “La Vierge” and “La Terre Promise” are of later date. These works treat their subjects with modern spirit and passion, instead of the more classic oratorio style. Massenet is hardly the equal of Saint-Saëns in orchestral work, but his “Phedre” overture and his suites of tone-pictures are remarkably attractive. In opera, he won his spurs with “Le Roi de Lahore,” a spectacular Oriental subject. “Herodiade” is a sacred work, while “Manon” is a graceful setting of Prevost’s novel of that name. “Le Cid” is not so strong a work, for Massenet’s style is sentimental and passionate rather than heroic. “Esclairmonde,” with a romantic and legendary plot, displays remarkable beauty and richness of effect. “Werther,” based on Goethe’s novel, is another success. “Le Mage,” an Oriental subject, and “Thais,” with an Egyptian plot, were comparative failures. “La Navarraise,” with its love amid battles, is an echo of Italian realism. Massenet’s tender feeling and vivid emotion show at their best in his later works for the stage—“Le Portrait de Manon,” a delightful love-idyl, “Cendrillon,” a fairy opera, “Griselidis,” an old legend of wifely constancy, and “Le Jongleur de Notre-Dame.” The last is a touching story of a despised minstrel who wins favor with the Holy Virgin by his earnest desire to do something in her name, even if it be only to amuse her with his juggling tricks.
French Opera.—Among other French composers for the stage, Meyerbeer, Gounod and Bizet belong to a previous generation. Delibes won some notice with “Le Roi l’a Dit” and “Sylvia,” but his best work is “Lakmé,” another example of rich Oriental warmth and color. Ambroise Thomas is known chiefly as the composer of “Mignon,” a remarkably graceful setting of a libretto from Goethe’s “Wilhelm Meister.” “Le Songe d’un Nuit d’Été,” an earlier work, has also met with deserved success, but “Hamlet” is a ridiculous perversion of Shakespeare, and “Françoise de Rimini” failed to attain real tragic grandeur. Guiraud is known by his comic opera “Piccolino”; Poise set many of Molière’s plays; Lalo’s only notable work is “Le Roi d’Ys”; Godard’s dainty “Vivandière” is frankly light in style; while Salvayre’s ambitious “Dame de Monsoreau” is not a great success. Reyer’s “Erostrate” and “La Statue” were praised in their day, but he is better known by two later works—“Sigurd,” on the subject of “Die Götterdämmerung,” and “Salammbô,” a setting of Flaubert’s story of Carthage.
Franck and His Influence.—The new French school is almost wholly due to the work of one man, César Auguste Franck (Liége, Belgium, 1822—Paris, 1890). He settled in Paris, and studied at the Conservatoire. Modest and retiring by nature, “le bon père Franck,” as he was called, divided his time between teaching, composing, and playing the organ of the Ste. Clotilde Church. His simple faith and earnest work recall the spirit of the old mediæval artists, who devoted their lives and their music to the glory of the Lord. Franck’s works show a mastery and power that his pupils are scarcely able to equal, and his compositions have fairly won the esteem that was denied to them during the composer’s lifetime. Among them are the great D minor Symphony, the oratorios “Ruth,” “Rebecca,” and “The Redemption,” the opera “Hulda,” and the symphonic poems “Psyche” (with voices), “Les Djinns,” “Les Eolides,” and “Le Chasseur Maudit.” But Franck’s most notable work is “Les Beatitudes,” an eight-part oratorio treating the Sermon on the Mount. Franck’s style is radically different from that of Saint-Saëns or Massenet. It is harmonic rather than melodic, and extremely modulatory in effect. His progressions remind the hearer of Wagner; but they do not always possess the broad simplicity that underlies Wagner’s most intricate passages. Franck’s pupils have often fallen into the error of imitating his weakest points, and have brought about a style of harmonic vagueness that seems meaningless to many modern critics.
D’Indy.—Vincent d’Indy (Paris, France, 1852) is the greatest of Franck’s pupils, and the leader of the modern French school. As conductor, he has been an ardent champion of new and little-known works. His own compositions include many forms, and have all attracted attention. His first great work to reach the public was the “Piccolomini” overture, a part of his orchestral trilogy based on Schiller’s “Wallenstein.” Two important vocal compositions are “La Chevauchée du Cid,” for baritone, chorus, and orchestra, and “Le Chant de la Cloche,” a dramatic legend that won the prize given by the city of Paris. In the orchestral field, “Antony and Cleopatra” is an early work, as is also the “Jean Hunyadi” symphony. Of d’Indy’s two later symphonies, the first, based on a mountain air, contains many passages of sweetness and purity, while the second is more involved and modulatory in style. His earliest symphonic poem, “La Forêt Enchantée” is a delicate tone-picture based on a ballad of Uhland; “Saugefleurie” is founded on a story by de Bonnières; while “Istar” is inspired by parts of the old Assyrian epic “Idzubar.” D’Indy’s music is hardly popular in style, for its themes are not definitely melodic; but his skill in weaving them into an orchestral tissue is admired by all musicians. In opera, “Les Burgraves” and the lighter “Attendez-Moi Sous l’Orme” are youthful works, while “Fervaal” is a music-drama (action musicale) on a Druidic subject, and “L’Etranger” is symbolic in style. He has written some important works in musical literature and theory.
Charpentier.—Gustave Charpentier (Dieuze, France, 1860) was a Conservatoire pupil. The Prix de Rome took him to Italy, and his life there resulted in the pleasing orchestral suite “Impressions d’Italie.” This consists of five tone-pictures, entitled, “Serenade,” “At the Fountain,” “On Muleback,” “On the Summits,” and “Naples.” On his return he lived among the working-people of Montmartre, and their life is reflected in his later works. “La Vie du Poète” is a symphony-drama, giving episodes in the life of an unsuccessful genius. In the beginning, all is aspiration and enthusiasm. Then doubt follows. At first the poet is consoled by the serene beauty of the summer night, but his fears gain the upper hand. Then comes a picture of impotent raging and vain anger against fate, after which the poet tries to blot out his sorrows in the cheap gayety of the city. “La Couronnement de la Muse” is a pantomime, written with the idea that a working girl in each town or city should annually be chosen and crowned amid festivities. The composer’s greatest work, however, is the opera “Louise.” This tells the story of a poor working girl, whose parents forbid her to marry the somewhat wayward Julien. At the latter’s persuasion, she finally flies with him. Her parents try to reclaim her, but again she is drawn away, and her father is left shaking his fist at the terrible city that entices young girls from their homes. The music of “Louise” is full of power and realism, and even the street cries of Paris are echoed in its measures.
Bruneau.—Operatic realism has found a more prolific, if less successful, champion in Alfred Bruneau (Paris, France, 1857), another Conservatoire pupil. He has confined himself to librettos drawn from the novels of Zola. “Le Rêve,” an early work, is a psychological study of love, in the person of the dreamy Angelique, who dies from excess of happiness when her wedding is completed. “L’Attaque du Moulin” is a spirited story of the Franco-Prussian war, set in a more melodic and popular style. “Messidor” is again symbolic in style, the theme being a contrast between greed for gold and the simple pleasure of honest toil. “L’Ouragan” deals with the tempests of human passion and jealousy, as well as the hurricanes of nature. “L’Enfant Roi,” and the music to “La Faute de l’Abbé Mouret,” are more recent works. Bruneau is sincere and earnest in his efforts at realism, but his music is often heavy and uninspired. He has produced works in other fields, among them being a great “Requiem,” a “Heroic Overture,” and the symphonic poem “Penthesilée,” for voice and orchestra. His three books on French composers, and his many criticisms, have made him known in the domain of musical literature.
Debussy.—The new school of French music finds its most radical expression in the compositions of Achille Claude Debussy (Paris, France, 1862). A musician of great gifts, he chooses to imbue his music with a studied vagueness of effect, and wanders through a maze of changing keys and harmonies. Many persons find the result wholly incomprehensible at first, but on repeated hearing his works show a weird, elusive beauty that is worshipped by his adherents as the acme of musical expression. He, too, was a Conservatoire student, and won the Prix de Rome with the cantata “L’Enfant Prodigue.” Two lyric scenes, “La Demoiselle Élue,” and “Chimène,” first drew attention to the young artist. Then came the orchestral prelude to Mallarmé’s “L’Après-Midi d’un Faune,” a delicately-woven rhapsody, with much beauty and much weirdness in its harmonies. The Nocturnes, entitled, “Nuages” and “Fêtes,” are described by De Bréville as possessing the ethereal charm of a perfume that pervades the air, but defies analysis. A string quartet is in stricter form, but the “Proses Lyriques,” on subjects of Beaudelaire, also the “Chansons de Bilitis” and “Les Estampes” for piano, again show the free style. Debussy’s most ambitious work is “Pelleas et Mélisande,” an opera based on Maeterlinck’s play of that name. The poet’s words offer the same shadowy suggestions that the composer gives in music, and the harmonic effects of vague mystery are entirely in place here.
Chausson.—Ernest Chausson (Paris, France, 1855—Limay, 1899) proved himself a composer of real greatness, and was still in the prime of life when he met with a fatal bicycle accident, in 1899. Trained for law, he turned to music from choice, as Schumann did before him. A pupil of Massenet and Franck, he combined the direct expression of the former with the harmonic style of the latter, and produced works of a most attractive orchestral coloring. Among his compositions are a worthy symphony, the beautiful symphonic poem “Viviane,” the orchestral pictures “Solitude dans les Bois” and “Soir de Fête,” a “Poëme” for violin and orchestra, some chamber-music, and many pleasing songs and choruses. His one great opera was “Le Roi Arthus.” His works are full of tenderness and charm, yet not lacking in vigor and breadth; they have the modern harmonic richness and orchestral color, and are growing steadily in favor.
Other Composers.—Alexis Emanuel Chabrier, wholly self-taught in music, produced the brilliant orchestral rhapsody “España,” an attractive “Suite Pastorale,” a lively “Marche Joyeuse,” and some effective cantatas. In opera, his “Le Roi Malgré Lui” is an excellent example in lighter vein, but his greatest work is “Gwendoline,” on a Viking subject. Of all the Frenchmen, he was the one best fitted to attempt the bold, virile style required by the libretto. The most prominent orchestral writer of the younger generation is Paul Dukas, whose “Apprenti Sorcier” treats a humorous subject with rare skill. Théodore Dubois, for many years head of the Conservatoire, is best known by his oratorios, such as “Paradise Lost,” and his “Frithjof” overture. Gabriel Fauré, the organist, who succeeded Dubois as director of the Conservatoire in 1905, has produced a symphony, two string quartets, and a number of songs whose intricacy cannot obscure their exquisite grace. Other organist-composers are Charles Marie Widor, who wrote the opera “Maître Ambros” and the ballet “La Korrigane,” and Alexandre Guilmant, known by his great organ symphony and sonatas. Bourgault-Ducoudray has written many cantatas, and made a valuable collection of Breton Folk-songs. Pierné, Coquard, Erlanger and Hue won their fame in opera, while Duparc gained notice with his symphonic poem “Lenore.” Ropartz and de Bréville rank with the best of Franck’s pupils, while among women-composers, Augusta Holmés won renown by her mastery of broad orchestral effects, and Cécile Chaminade is known by her dainty songs and piano pieces.
The New French School.—When Wagner showed the harmonic resources of the modern orchestra, he led the way for a host of imitators, who have often done more harm than good. Such operas as “Fervaal” and “Gwendoline,” in large measure the result of “Tristan,” are proper applications of this style. But the idea of finding new harmonic effects has exerted its influence on orchestral writers also, and some modern composers, especially in France, have devoted all their energy to this, and have apparently sacrificed all thoughts of musical beauty. The French have even invented the term “cérébral,” which describes a composer who puts no emotion or feeling into his music, but works it out wholly from the brain. Thus many of the modern compositions must be regarded as great orchestral experiments, and the composer who combines this instrumental technic with real feeling and directness of utterance is the one who will meet with the greatest success.
Which French composers represent the older style; which the new?
Give a sketch of the works of Saint-Saëns.
Give a sketch of the works of Massenet.
Name other important opera composers in France.
Who was the leader of the new French school? Give an account of his works. Name some of his pupils.
Who is the leading representative of this school today (1905)? Give an account of his works.
Which is the most important work of Charpentier?
In what lines of musical work did Bruneau labor? Name some of his works.
Who is the most extreme representative of the new French school?
What are the distinguishing characteristics of Chausson’s works?
Name other important French composers.
What is the character of some of the works of the advanced school of composition?
Pietro Mascagni. Giacomo Puccini.
G. Sgambati.
Abbé Perosi. Enrico Bossi.
Musical Decadence.—When a nation clings to its own musical ideas, and persistently disregards the growth and progress of other nations, it usually enters upon a period of decay. This is what took place in Italy during the 19th century, and the country that produced Palestrina and the Scarlattis seemed for a time to understand nothing but the trivial operatic melodies of Rossini’s successors. In 1850, there were scarcely any concert halls in the country, and even the churches were content with operatic airs set to sacred words. Soon after this, Pinelli tried to give an orchestral concert, with sixty musicians; and the box-office receipts left only fourteen francs with which to pay them. Sgambati produced a Beethoven symphony, but had to do it at his own expense. As late as 1879, Saint-Saëns, who gave an organ recital at Milan, found the organ scarcely fit for an artist to play upon. In opera, it was only the broad judgment of Verdi that was able to look beyond the borders of his native land, and his “Aïda,” as well as Boïto’s “Mefistofele,” was the beginning of a new order of things.
Mascagni.—In 1890, the publisher Sonzogno offered a prize for the best one-act opera submitted to him, and this prize was awarded to Pietro Mascagni (Leghorn, Italy, 1863), then an unimportant musical leader at Cerignola. Mascagni was the son of a baker, who wished him to study law, and locked him up because he practiced the piano in secret. The boy was rescued by his uncle, and under the protection of Count Florestan pursued his studies at the Milan Conservatory. The opera that brought him such fame, which has since become world-wide, was “Cavalleria Rusticana,” or “Rustic Chivalry,” based on a tale by Verga. The scene is a village square, before a church. The heroine, Santuzza, is forsaken by Turiddu, who carries on an intrigue with Lola, wife of the carter Alfio. Santuzza, in despair, denounces him to Alfio, who challenges and kills him. The music is hardly of the highest standard; but it is popular and vigorous in style, and intensely powerful. The work is scarcely comparable to the music-dramas, yet every number is animated by the spirit of the words, and it is therefore dramatically true. Among the many favorite selections from its score are the “Siciliana” of Turiddu (sung as part of the overture, before the curtain rises), the broad and noble “Regina Coeli,” Lola’s serenely confident aria, “My King of Roses,” and the jolly “Brindisi,” or drinking chorus, to say nothing of the saccharine “Intermezzo.” The power and vividness of “Rustic Chivalry” made it an epoch-making work; but Mascagni’s later operas have not met with the same success. They include “L’Amico Fritz,” “William Ratcliff,” “Silvano,” “Iris,” “Le Maschere,” and the one-act “Amica.”
Leoncavallo.—The success of “Rustic Chivalry” aroused Ruggiero Leoncavallo (Naples, Italy, 1858) to try his hand in the same school. His early opera “Chatterton” was practically a failure, while his ambitious “Medici” trilogy (“I Medici,” “Savonarola,” and “Cesare Borgia”) met with no better reception. In “I Pagliacci,” however, he produced a work of the new school, that has taken its place beside Mascagni’s opera as an example of the new realism. The “Pagliacci” are strolling players. Canio, the leader, is aroused to madness by learning of the proposed elopement of his wife, Nedda, but she will not betray her lover’s name. They enact for the villagers a mimic tragedy of love and jealousy, but Canio makes it real by actually stabbing the faithless Nedda. Her lover then leaps from the audience to save her, only to meet a similar death at Canio’s hands. The music to this play is of a higher standard than Mascagni’s, though less directly popular in style. “Trilby” and “Zaza” are later works of little importance, while “Roland of Berlin,” composed by order for a libretto by the Emperor of Germany, aroused only passing interest.
Puccini.—When the great Verdi retired from active life as a composer, he named as his probable successor, Giacomo Puccini (Lucca, Italy, 1858). Descended from a musical family, Puccini could devote himself to his art without parental opposition, and he completed his studies under Ponchielli, at the Milan Conservatory. His “Le Villi” was really the origin of the modern one-act plays. “Edgar” resembles “Carmen” somewhat, but has a weak libretto, and music that is not always effective. “Manon Lescaut” is rather a succession of detached scenes than a single whole, but at times it displays a mastery of dramatic contrast far beyond Massenet. “La Bohême” is a delightfully sympathetic setting of Murger’s well-known novel, and its scenes of rollicking defiance to poverty and hunger remind one of the composer’s early struggles. The note of haunting sweetness that pervades the score marks Puccini as a man of rare musical gifts. In “Tosca,” the heroine of that name loves the artist, Mario, who aids a political refugee, at the risk of his own life. The governor, Scarpia, who captures him, loves Tosca also, and tortures him to make her yield to his desires. To save Mario, she consents, but stabs Scarpia at the last moment. But Scarpia’s treachery survives him, for the pretended execution, which was to let Mario escape, turns out to be real, and Tosca takes her own life in despair. The music shows a ripe mastery of dramatic power. The climax of the first act, merging into the church service, and the tragic power of the second, well contrasted with the strains of a festival cantata that float in through the window, are scenes that win unqualified praise from all critics. “Madame Butterfly,” on a Japanese subject, lacked the necessary delicacy, but the two preceding works have made Puccini the foremost man in Italian opera today.
The Realistic School.—Many composers of the “Verismo” school adopt a realism that deals only with the more brutal side of life, and their plots, though strong, are not always pleasing. Giordano’s “Andrea Chenier” and “Fedora” show musical worth, but Spinelli’s “A Basso Porto,” Coronaro’s “Festa a Marina,” and Tasca’s “A Santa Lucia” picture some of the coarsest phases of existence. Yet this defect may be condoned when we consider that the movement has infused new life and power into Italian music. Among those composers who have stood somewhat aloof from the new school, Franchetti is the most noteworthy. His operas include “Cristoforo Colombo,” “Germania,” and the later “Figlia di Jorio,” and he has written symphonies that place him among the best of the later Italian composers.
Perosi.—The revival in sacred music has been brought about wholly by one man, Don Lorenzo Perosi (Tortona, Italy, 1872). He studied faithfully, in spite of sickness—first at Milan, then under the learned Fr. Haberl at Ratisbon. He became a conductor at Imola, and afterwards at Venice, where he led his forces with decided vigor. Soon after this, he began to compose the oratorios that have made him so famous. His sacred trilogy, “The Passion of Christ,” included the “Last Supper,” the “Sermon on the Mount,” and the “Death of the Redeemer.” It made a sensation that reverberated through all Italy, and caused his appointment in the following year as honorary master of the Papal Choir. He has been untiring as a composer, producing no less than fifteen masses and nearly a dozen oratorios. Among the latter are “The Transfiguration,” “The Annunciation,” “The Raising of Lazarus,” “The Birth of the Redeemer,” and the two-part “Moses.” He writes with enthusiasm, and sees the actual picture before him while he works. His music does not possess the calm dignity shown by Palestrina, but its semi-popular style is well adapted to his hearers, and may lead the way to something better.
Sgambati.—The leading position among Italy’s new symphonic composers belongs to Giovanni Sgambati (Rome, Italy, 1843). Like many musicians, he was at first destined for a lawyer’s career, but began his musical studies in time to become known as a boy-prodigy. He settled in Rome, and soon grew famous as a pianist. He played Beethoven, Schumann and Chopin, and did much to introduce their works into Italy. He planned a trip to Germany, but when Liszt came to Rome he remained there to study under that great master. At this time his earlier compositions, mostly chamber works, brought him into notice in a new field. These quartets and quintets were followed by a festival overture, a piano concerto, and three symphonies in succession. His compositions are somewhat lacking in spontaneity, but they display great learning, and undeniable skill. His works show the influence of Liszt and Berlioz, mingled with the stricter style of the old Italian contrapuntal writers.
Other Orchestral Composers.—With Sgambati, Martucci also deserves mention in the instrumental field. He became identified with the artistic life of Naples, where he fought a similar fight for the cause of good music. Among several others, Del Valle de Paz is noted for his valuable educational work in Florence, no less than for his compositions. Busoni, so well known as a pianist, has also tried his hand at orchestral writing in the most extreme modern vein. Eugenio di Pirani is another composer who has identified himself with the German instrumental school. The literary champion of the new order of things has been Luigi Torchi, whose work in the magazines deserves the highest praise.
Bossi.—The most prominent figure among the younger devotees of the German style is Marco Enrico Bossi (Salo, Italy, 1861). He studied organ at first, and for ten years held the post of organist in the Como Cathedral. Four years of teaching at Naples were followed by similar work in Venice, where he gained deserved prominence. His compositions show great originality, and include many different forms. An early overture was given at the Crystal Palace, in London, which he visited during a piano tour. The one-act opera “Paquita” was followed by “L’Angelo della Notte” and “Il Veggento,” also a large work for the Milan Exposition of 1905. He has composed many masses, and the oratorio “Christus.” A more recent triumph is “Paradise Lost,” with Milton’s words—a work suggested by Mme. Rubinstein. His organ concerto won a decided success at the Chicago Fair, and his symphonic poem, “Il Cieco,” has been well received. He aims to blend the old polyphonic style with the rich instrumentation of modern Germany.
Buongiorno.—Among the adherents of German standards, Buongiorno (Bonito, Italy, 1864) is one who has devoted himself to opera. Studying at the Naples Conservatory, he became leader of an operetta troupe, for which he wrote many popular works. His first great opera was “Das Mädchenherz” (Il Cuor delle Fanciulle), which treats with admirable delicacy the love-story of Alba and Marino. She grows to be court singer, and defeats an older rival, but ambition makes her careless of love. Marino becomes a priest, and only when Alba is old and forsaken does his consolation show her what she has missed. The music displays much emotional beauty, and the “play within the play,” at the ducal court, allows the composer to imitate Bach, Handel, and other old masters with exquisite humor. “Michelangelo and Rolla” is a one-act play, again uniting a subject of real poetic worth with beautiful music. These two operas are far removed from the crudities of the “Verismo” school.
Wolf-Ferrari.—A composer who may fitly follow German ideals is Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, son of a German father and an Italian mother. His “Cenerentola” (Cinderella) has a rather tedious first act, but the second act shows all the appealing beauty and sympathetic feeling that mark the new romanticism. “Le Donne Curiose” is an excellent example of sparkling comedy, and has won much success in Germany. It treats of the misadventures of some women, who try to investigate a mysterious club formed by their husbands. A work in a different vein is the composer’s “Vita Nuova,” a fresh and inspired setting of sonnets and other selections from Dante’s great work.
Music in Italy.—It is difficult for one nation to adopt the musical expression of another, but this is practically what Italy has done. Verdi first gave up the trivial melodies so dear to the Italian populace, and adopted a worthier style. Like Boïto, he denied being influenced by Wagner, but his works show that he felt the force of the German master’s orchestral power. The realistic school of opera has brought into Italian music a vividness and power that are not surpassed by any other nation, while a still later generation has striven to cast off the crudities of this school and produce works of real orchestral value. Italy has already done much, and the progress of the last few decades seems to predict a bright future for her music.
Music in Spain.—During the last half-century, Spain, too, has developed some native composers. One of the best is Isaac Albeniz, whose “Pepita Ximenes” is a delightful comedy of love and intrigue. His Zarzuelas also have met with success. Felipe Pedrell, well known in European journalism, has written an ambitious trilogy on subjects illustrating the national motto, “Patria, Fides, Amor.” Larrocha, Vives, De Lara, and Antonio Noguerra are also worthy of mention. The Zarzuela is the peculiar Spanish form of light opera, resembling the Italian opera buffa, but possessing more brilliance and delicacy.
Questions.
What circumstances contributed to Italy’s musical decadence?
Give an account of “Cavalleria Rusticana” and how it came to be written.
What composer was influenced by the success of Mascagni? Describe his works.
Who wrote “La Bohême”? Tell about his education and his works.
What composers are prominent in the “Realistic” school in Italy?
Give an account of the work of Perosi in Oratorio.
Give an account of the works of Sgambati and other composers for the orchestra.
What composers follow German methods? Describe their works.