Picture writing of the American Indian, by Garrick Mallery

The system under which the Indians have their personal names is intricate and difficult to explain. In the first place, a name, which may be called the proper name, is always given to a young child soon after birth. It is said to be proper that the peaiman, or medicine-man, should choose and give this name, but, at any rate now, the naming seems more often left to the parents. The word selected is generally the name of some plant, bird, or other natural object. But these names seem of little use, in that owners have a very strong objection to telling or using them, apparently on the ground that the name is part of the man, and that he who knows the name has part of the owner of that name in his power. One Indian, therefore, generally addresses another only according to the relationship of the caller and the called, as brother, sister, father, mother, and so on. These terms, therefore, practically form the names actually used by Indians amongst themselves. But an Indian is just as unwilling to tell his proper name to a white man as to an Indian, and, of course, between the Indian and the white man there is no relationship the term for which can serve as a proper name. An Indian, therefore, when he has to do with a European, asks the latter to give him a name, and if one is given to him always afterwards uses this. The names given in this way are generally simple enough—John, Peter, Thomas, and so on.

Fig. 581.—Signature of Running Antelope, Dakota.

The original of Fig. 581 was made in 1873 by Running Antelope, chief of the Uncapapa Dakota, in the style of a signature instead of being attached to his head by a line as is the usual method of the tribe in designating personal names.

Fig. 582.—Solinger sword-makers’ marks.

Fig. 582 presents a curious comparison with Figs. 548 and 903 showing the manner in which the wolf, proverbially a lean animal, was delineated by Germans in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It is taken from Rudolf Cronau (b), whose remarks are translated and condensed as follows:

a. The oldest representation known to me of the “wolf” occurs on a Gothic sword of the thirteenth century, in the Historical Museum of Dresden.

b. Is more primitive, from a sword of the last half of the fourteenth century, in the “Berliner Zeughause;” also similar to c, of the same period, from a specimen in the Züricher Zeughaus.

d and e. Signatures on two specimens in the collection in Feste Coburg; e is a rare representation of the figure of the wolf of 1490, in the Germanic Museum at Nürnberg, and still more intricate (verzwickter) is the drawing f on a Dresden specimen of the year 1559.

A large proportion of the pictographs of several names next to be presented are from Red-Cloud’s Census, the history of which is as follows:

A pictorial census was prepared in 1884 under the direction of Red-Cloud, chief of the Dakota at Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota Territory. The 289 persons enumerated, many of whom were heads of families, were the adherents of Red-Cloud and did not represent all the Indians at that agency. Owing to a disagreement the agent refused to acknowledge that chief as head of the Indians at the agency, and named another as the official chief. Many of the Indians exhibited their allegiance to Red-Cloud by having their names attached in their own pictorial style to a document showing their votes and number. This filled seven sheets of ordinary manila paper and was sent to Washington. While in the custody of Dr. T. A. Bland, of that city, it was loaned by him to the Bureau of Ethnology to be copied by photography. The different sheets were apparently drawn by different persons, as the drawings of human heads vary enough to indicate individuality. This arrangement seems to imply seven bands or, perhaps, gentes.

Dr. V. T. McGillicuddy, who at the time was Indian agent at Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota, in correspondence gives the impression that the several pictographs representing names were attached as signatures by the several individuals to a subscription list for Dr. Bland, before mentioned, who was the editor of The Council Fire, in support of that publication and with an agreement that each should give 25 cents. The document in that view would be a subscription list, but the subscribers were, in fact, the adherents of Red-Cloud. Whatever was the motive for this collection of pictured names, its interest consists in the mode of their portrayal, together with the assurance that they were the spontaneous and genuine work of the Indians concerned.

In addition to the personal names which immediately follow, a considerable number of the 289 pictographic names appear elsewhere in this paper under the various heads of Tribal Designations, Ideography, Conventionalizing, Customs, special Comparison, etc.

Interspersed among the personal names taken from the above mentioned list are others selected from the Oglala Roster, the origin of which is explained above, and the several winter counts of The-Flame, The-Swan, American-Horse, and Cloud-Shield, mentioned, respectively, in Chap. X, Sec. 2. The authority is in each case attached to the pictograph with the translation of the Indian name, and in some cases with the name in the original.

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, in Vol. XXXIV of the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and in the American Anthropologist for July, 1890, gives valuable notes on the subject of Indian personal names and also has made oral suggestions to the present writer. Some of those may be considered with reference to the list now presented. He thinks that the frequent use of color names is from a mythical or symbolic significance attributed to the colors. Also the word translated “iron,” or “metal,” is connected with the color blue, the object called iron being always painted blue when colors are used, and that color is mystically connected with the water powers of the Dakotan mythology. The frequent use of the terms “Little” and “Big,” with or without graphic differentiation, may be as the terms young and old, junior and senior, are employed by civilized people, but the expressions in other cases may refer to the size of the animals seen in the visions of fasting which have determined the names.

Explanations on parts of the pictographs not strictly connected with the personal name are annexed for the reason before indicated and the objects connected by the names are to some extent arranged in classes.

OBJECTIVE.

In the figures immediately following the delineation is objective. It is sometimes interesting to note the different modes of representing the same object or concept.

Fig. 584.

Fig. 584.—High-Back-Bone was killed in a fight with the Snakes (Shoshoni). Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1870-’71. White-Cow-Killer calls it “High-Back-Bone-killed-by-Snake-Indians winter.”

Fig. 586.

Fig. 586.—Long-Hair was killed. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1786-’87. To what tribe he belonged is not known. The tribes, such as the Crows, in which it is a tribal custom to wear the hair to an enormous length, eke it out by artificial means and ornament it with beads and streamers. In this case the length of the hair seems to have been a personal peculiarity, not a tribal mark.

Fig. 587.

Fig. 587.—They killed the long-haired man in a fight with the Cheyennes while on an expedition to avenge the death of The-Man-Who-Owns-The-Flute, who was killed by the Cheyennes the year before. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1796-’97. This may be the same man who is referred to in the last preceding figure, as the expression “killed,” given in translation by the interpreters, does not always mean wounded to death, but severely wounded—Hibernicé “kilt.” Here the scalp shows the length of the hair, and the victim is called a Cheyenne.

Fig. 590.

Fig. 590.—Red-Shirt. Red-Cloud’s Census. This and the following figure exhibit the name, the first showing only the garment and the second exhibiting it as worn.

Fig. 591.

Fig. 591.—Red-Shirt, a Dakota, was killed by the Crows while looking for his ponies near Old Woman’s fork. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1810-’11. The bow over the head and the absence of scalp-lock signifies death by the arrow of enemies.

Fig. 595.

Fig. 595.—Black-Rock was killed by the Crows. His brother, whose name he had taken, was killed by the Crows three years before. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1809-’10.

Fig. 596.

Fig. 596.—Bird, a white trader, was burned to death by the Cheyennes. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1864-’65. He is surrounded by flames in the picture. His name was probably Bird, which was pictorially represented as usual.

Fig. 597.

Fig. 597.—Red-Lake’s house, which he had recently built, was destroyed by fire, and he was killed by the accidental explosion of some powder. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1831-’32. This figure is introduced here in connection with the simple fire on the one preceding to show the artistic portrayal separately of a steady flame and of an explosion.

Fig. 599.

Fig. 599.—A Two-Kettle Dakota, named The-Breast, died. Swan’s Winter Count, 1836-’37.

Mato Sapa says: A Two-Kettle, named The-Breast, died. This is the same character as is given elsewhere for abundance, plenty of buffalo. But here it has a wholly personal application.

Fig. 600.

Fig. 600.—Left-Handed-Big-Nose was killed by the Shoshoni. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1839-’40. His left arm is represented extended, and his nose is grotesquely conspicuous.

Fig. 601.

Fig. 601.—Roman-Nose. Red-Cloud’s Census. The large and aquiline nose is exhibited, which was very liberally translated “Roman Nose,” and the term became the popular name of a celebrated chief of the Dakotas.

Fig. 604.

Fig. 604.—Licks-with-his-tongue. Red-Cloud’s Census. The tongue is exaggerated as well as protruded, and without explanation might be mistaken for a large object bitten off for eating in a gluttonous manner.

Fig. 606.

Fig. 606.—Broken-Leg-Duck, an Oglala, went to a Crow village to steal horses and was killed. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1786-’87. A line connects the bird, one of whose legs is out of order, with the mouth of the man’s head, which is without scalp-lock.

Fig. 608.

Fig. 608.—Antelope-Dung broke his neck while running antelope. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1853-’54. His head is the only part of his body that is shown, and it is bleeding copiously. Without the preceding figure this one would not be intelligible.

Fig. 610.

Fig. 610.—Sits-like-a-Woman. Red-Cloud’s Census. This person is also portrayed in a recent Dakota record, where the character is represented by the “woman seated” only. The name of this man is not “Sits-like-a-Woman,” but High-Wolf—shunkmanitu (wolf), wankantuya (up above). This is an instance of giving one name in a pictograph as if the correct or official name and retaining another by which the man is known in camp to his companions.

Fig. 611.

Fig. 611.—The-Man-Who-Owns-the-Flute was killed by the Cheyennes. American-Horse’s Winter Count, 1795-’96. His flute is represented in front of him with sounds coming from it. A bullet mark is on his neck. In reference to this character, see Chap. XX, Sec. 2.

Fig. 612.

Fig. 612.—Smoking-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census. The bear does not appear to be smoking the pipe, but the smoke of the latter is mounting to the animal’s neck, so the bear is smoking in a passive sense.

Fig. 613.

Fig. 613.—Biting-Bear. Red-Cloud’s Census. The bear seems to be biting at the bark on the limb of a tree, which shows the marks of his claws. This animal, as is well known, eats the bark of certain trees.

METAPHORIC.

Fig. 615.

Fig. 615.—Fighting-Cuss. Red-Cloud’s Census. This warrior appears, while only armed with a lance, to be successfully fighting an enemy who has a gun.

Fig. 616.

Fig. 616.—Man-with-hearts. Red-Cloud’s Census. There is no information as to the significance of this drawing, but it is conjectured that the warrior had eaten the heart of one or more enemies, as was frequently done. This was not cannibalism, but a superstitious and sometimes ceremonial performance, by which the eater acquired the qualities of the victim, and in this case would be supposed to have more than one heart, i. e., the courage attributed to those hearts.

Fig. 617.

Fig. 617.—Takes-the-Gun. Red-Cloud’s Census. It appears from the name that the man is not handling his own gun, but is on the point of grasping and taking away the weapon of another person.

Fig. 618.

Fig. 618.—Jola, Whistler. The Oglala Roster. This is one of the instances where the usual rule in the Oglala Roster, of representing the name above the head, is abandoned, because it is essential to connect it with the mouth to express the whistle. Without this arrangement the musical instrument would not be suggested.

Fig. 619.

Fig. 619.—American-Horse’s Winter Count for 1872-’73 gives the pictograph of Whistler, also named Little-Bull. Both of his names appear; that of Whistler is expressed by the sounds blown from the mouth. He whistles without an instrument.

Fig. 620.

Fig. 620.—Ceji, Tongue. The Oglala Roster. This man was not necessarily an orator, but probably the nickname was given in derision as orally “tonguey” might be. Again the line is from the crown of the head to the protruded tongue.

Fig. 621.

Fig. 621.—Canku-sapa, Black-Road. The Oglala Roster. This road, on which horse tracks are shown, is distinguished from that of the head chief Big-Road (a, on Pl. XXVI) as being much more narrow and obscure, therefore black.

ANIMALS.

The following figures are selected from a large number to show the variety of animals, and the differentiation by marks and attitudes found necessary to present the names. A similar multiplication of the animals by different coloration is exhibited, but can not be repeated in the text figures.

Fig. 633.

Fig. 633.—Hoka-qin, Carried-the-Badger. The Oglala Roster. The design explains itself. The animal is exaggerated in size and some of its features are accentuated.

Fig. 634.

Fig. 634.—Kangi-topa, Four-Crows. The Oglala Roster. The four crows are cawing forth such explanation as they can give of the reasons, probably coming from visions, why they were used to form a name for an Oglala.

VEGETABLE.

The products of the vegetable kingdom are not often used by the Dakotas in their personal designations. The three following figures, however, are examples of such use.

With regard to the errors arising from bad translation, an example may be given, relating to a name the explanation of which has often been asked. A former chief of the Oglala was called “Old-man-afraid-of-his-Horses,” by the whites, and his son is known as “Young-man-afraid-of-his-Horses.” A common interpretation about “afraid-of-his-horses” is that the man valued his horses so much that he was afraid of losing them. The representative of the name, however, stated to the writer that the correct name was Ta-shunka Kokipapi, and that the true meaning was “He-whose-horse-they-fear”; literally “His-horse-they-fear-it.”

A large number of pictorially rendered Indian names attached to deeds and treaties have been published, e. g., in Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York (b). Few of them are of interest, and they generally suggest the assistance of practiced penmen. In the collections mentioned some of the Dutch marks are in the same general style as those of the Indians.

Mr. P. W. Norris, late of the Bureau of Ethnology, had a buffalo robe containing a record of exploits, which was drawn by Black-Crow, a Dakota warrior. The successful warrior is represented in each instance upright, the accompanying figure being always in a recumbent posture, representing the enemy who was slain. The peculiar feature of these pictographs is that instead of depicting the victim’s personal name with a connecting line, the object denoting his name is placed above the head of the victor in each instance, and a line connects the character with his mouth. The latter thus seems to proclaim the name of his victim. A pipe is also figured between the victor and the vanquished, showing that he is entitled to smoke a pipe of celebration.

A copy of the whole record was shown to the Mdewakantanwan Dakotas, near Fort Snelling, Minnesota, in 1883, and the character reproduced in Fig. 638, about which there was the most doubt, was explained as signifying “many tongues,” or Loud-Talker.

The circle at the end of the line running from the mouth contains a number of lanceolate forms, one-half of each of which is black, the other white. They have the appearance of feathers, but also may represent tongues and signify voice, sound issuing from the mouth, and correspond in some respect to those drawn by the Mexicans with that significance, of which examples are given in this work, Chap. XX, Sec. 2. The considerable number of these tongue-like figures suggests intensity and denotes loud voice, or, as given literally, “loud talker,” that being the name of the victim.

It is, however, to be noted that “Shield,” an Oglala Dakota, contends that the character signifies Feather-Shield, the name of a warrior formerly living at the Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota.

Designation of an object, as a name, by means of a connecting line is mentioned in Kingsborough (a). Pedro de Alvarado, one of the companions of Cortez, was red-headed. Designating him, the Mexicans called him Tonatihu, the “Sun,” and in their picture-writing his name was represented by their conventional character for the sun attached to his person by a line.

Other examples are now presented both of the linear connection and of the iconographic figuration by the old Mexicans.

In Kingsborough (b) is a pictograph of Chimalpopoca, which name signifies a smoking shield, here reproduced as Fig. 639 (a). The smoking shield is connected with the head by a line, and the form of smoke should be noticed in comparison with the representation of flame and of voice by the same pictors.

The same authority and volume, p. 135 (illustration in Vol. I, Pt. 4, Pl. V), gives the name and illustration (reproduced in the same Fig., b) of Ytzcohuatl, the signification of which name is a serpent armed with knives. The knives refer to the Itzli stone.

In the same volume, p. 137, is the name Face of Water, with the corresponding illustration in Vol. I, Pt. 4, Pl. 12 (here Pl. XII c). The drops of water are falling profusely from the face.

CHAPTER XIV.
RELIGION.

The most surprising fact relating to the North American Indians, which until lately had not been realized, is that they habitually lived in and by religion to a degree comparable with the old Israelites under the theocracy. This was sometimes ignored, and sometimes denied in terms, by many of the early missionaries and explorers. The aboriginal religion was not their religion, and therefore was not recognized to have an existence or was pronounced to be satanic. Many pictorial representations are given in this chapter of concepts of the supernatural, as operative in this world, which is popularly styled religion when it is not condemned as superstition. The pictographic examples presented from the Siouan stock are generally explained as they appear. Those from the Ojibwa and other tribes are not so fully discussed. It is therefore proper to mention explicitly that, in the several localities where the tribes are now found which have been the least affected by civilization, they in a marked degree live a life of religious practices, and their shamans have a profound influence over their social character. A careful study of these people has already given indication of facts corresponding in interest with those which have recently surprised the world as reported by Mr. Cushing from among the Zuñi and Dr. Matthews from among the Navajo.

The most extensive and important publications on the subject have been made by Maj. J. W. Powell (a), Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. These have been made at many times and in various shapes, from the Outlines of the Philosophy of the North American Indians, read in 1876, to the present year.

A considerable amount of detail respecting religion appears in Chap. IX, Sections 4 and 5, in the present work.

The discussion of the religions and religious practices of the tribes of America is not germane to the present work, except so far as it elucidates their pictographs. In that connection it may be mentioned that the tribes of Indians in the territory of the United States, which have been converted to Christianity, seem not to have spontaneously turned their pictographic skill to the representation of objects connected with the religion to which they have been converted. This might be explained by the statement, often true, that the converts have been taught to read and write the languages of their teachers in religion, and therefore ceased to be pictographers. But where they have not been so instructed, indeed have been encouraged to retain their own language and to write it in a special manner supposed to be adapted to their ancient methods, the same result is observed. The Micmacs still with delight draw on bark their stories of Glooscap and Lox, and scenes from the myths of their old faith, but unless paid as for a piece of work, do not produce Christian pictures. This assertion does not conflict with the account of the “Micmac hieroglyphs” in Chap. XIX, Sec. 2. All the existing specimens of these were made by Europeans, and the action of the first Indian converts, which was imitated by Europeans, was the simple use of their old scheme of mnemotechny to assist in memorizing the lessons required of them by missionaries. It is also to be noted that some tribes for convenience have adopted Christian emblems into their own ceremonial pictographs (see Fig. 159).

It has been found convenient to divide this chapter into the following sections: (1) Symbols of the supernatural. (2) Myths and mythic animals. (3) Shamanism. (4) Charms and amulets. (5) Religious ceremonies. (6) Mortuary practices.

SECTION 1.
SYMBOLS OF THE SUPERNATURAL.

This group shows the modes of expressing the idea of the supernatural, holy, sacred, or, more correctly, the mystic or unknown (perhaps unknowable), that being the true translation of the Dakota word wakaⁿ. The concept of “crazy,” in the sense of influenced by superior powers or inspired, is in the same connection. Not only the North American Indians, but many tribes of Asia and Africa, consider a demented person to be sacred and therefore inviolable. The spiral line is but a pictorial representation of the sign for wakaⁿ, which is: With its index finger extended and pointing upward, or all the fingers extended, back of hand outward, move the right hand from just in front of the forehead spirally upward nearly to arm’s length from left to right.

Fig. 640.

Fig. 640.—Crazy-Dog, a Dakota, carried the pipe around and took the war path. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1838-’39.

The waved or spiral lines denote crazy or mystic, as above explained.

Fig. 641.

Fig. 641.—Crazy-Horse says his prayers and goes on the war-path. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1844-’45.

The waved lines are used again for crazy. “Says his prayers,” which are the words of the interpreter, would be more properly rendered by referring to the ceremonies of organizing a war party.

Fig. 642.

Fig. 642.—Crazy-Horse’s band left the Spotted-Tail agency (at Camp Sheridan, Nebraska) and went north, after Crazy-Horse was killed at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. Cloud-Shield’s Winter Count, 1877-’78.

Hoofprints and lodge-pole tracks run northward from the house, which represents the agency. That the horse is “crazy” is shown by the waved or spiral lines on his body, running from his nose, hoof, and forehead. The band is named from its deceased chief, and is designated by his personal device, a distinct and unusual departure among Indians tending towards the evolution of band or party emblems unconnected with the gentile system.

Fig. 643.

Fig. 643.—Medicine. Red-Cloud’s Census. The full rendering should be medicine-man or shaman. The waving lines above the head again signify mystic or sacred, and are made in gesture in a similar manner as that before described, with some differentiation, for prayer or incantation. The shut or half-closed eye may be noted.

Fig. 646.

Fig. 646.—Medicine-Buffalo. Red-Cloud’s Census. This is probably an albino buffalo, and may refer to the man who possessed one who is venerated therefor. See Chap. XIII.