The various raisin brands packed in Malaga are different according to the different markets that are to be supplied. Thus for England we have: Finest Dehesa, three crown; finest Dehesa, two crown; finest Dehesa, one crown; Dehesa; Choice layers; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London layers, one crown.

For France again we have: 1 Imperiaux; 1 Royaux; Couches; Surchoix; Choix; Ordinaire; Surcouches, etc.

The loose raisins or Brena and the seedless or Escombro generally go to the continent or even to the United States. The old terms Garoon or Sun are now never used.

For American markets we have: Imperial Dehesa; Royal finest Dehesa; finest Dehesa; fine Dehesa; Dehesa; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London loose, one, two and three crown.

Boxes are generally made from fir imported from Portugal, at fifteen cents each. Of late years, however, they are also received from Canada, and cost only seven cents each.

Labor.

—The labor in Malaga is the most expensive in Spain, the best laborer being paid forty cents per day, while in Denia the labor is obtained for fifteen cents only; but it must be remembered that the packing of the Malaga raisins is a much more particular work than the packing of the dipped Denias.

The price paid for Malaga raisins at the packing-house is at an average of seven cents per pound for the best, or from one to two cents more than what is paid in California. The lower grades bring from two and a half cents upwards.

VALENCIA AND DENIA.

Extent of the Districts.

—The Valencia raisins, or, as they are called, the Lexias or Spanish dipped raisins, are produced in the province of Valencia, situated on the east coast of Spain. The district contains three sub-districts, the southern one, the Alicante district, extending from Villa Joyosa in the north to Elche in the south. The raisins of the Alicante district are inferior to those produced in the other districts, both as regards quality and quantity. The most northerly district is the Valencia district proper, extending from Cullera in the south to Castellon in the north. North of the latter place the Muscat grape does not come to perfection, and even within this district comparatively few raisins are now produced as compared with a few years ago. But the bulk of all the raisins produced in the province are exported from Valencia city, and hence these raisins are known as Valencias, while in reality they come principally from Denia.

The bulk of the Valencia raisins come from the central district, or the Denia sub-district, comprising the land between Villa Joyosa in the south and Cullera in the north, or about thirty miles on each side of the town of Denia. Towards the interior the raisin district extends at the most nine miles, but the average is less, so that the whole district over which the Denia vineyards are spread includes only an area of 350 square miles, equal to ten townships of land, or about 224,000 acres. A large part of this land is not cultivated, and consists of mountains and waste places only suitable as watersheds. The town of Denia is the principal town of the sub-district, and has now a population of about 2,600 people. It is situated about half way between Valencia in the north and Alicante in the south, on the shore of the Mediterranean, in about the latitude of Sacramento in California, or thirty-eight degrees, fifty minutes north. Being one of the oldest towns in Spain, Denia was first founded by the Phœnicians, who here established the worship of Diana, from which word the name Denia is a corruption. The Phœnicians also introduced the grapes, and possibly also the drying of raisins; but the local tradition gives the honor of the latter industry to the Moors, who are said to have brought with them the variety of grape known as the Muscat of Alexandria. During a part of the year, Denia is the export harbor for the raisins of the district. This is only possible in the early part of the raisin season, as then only are the winds favorable,—the so-called harbor being nothing but a roadstead. Later in the season, when storms and rains set in, all the raisins are shipped to Valencia by railroad, and from there exported by steamers and sailing vessels.

Among other industries of the Denia district are the cultivation of onions, the manufacture of cotton goods, its sardine fisheries, etc., all giving work to the vineyard workers during a time of the year when there is nothing or but little to do in the vineyards and packing-houses.

The raisins of Denia are not all of the same quality, but vary according to the locality where grown. The whole district is dotted with small villages, all producing raisins. The principal ones of these are, besides Denia proper, Jabea, Jaraco, Jerrea, Oliva, Pedreguer, Jalon, Gandia, Ondara, Vergel, etc. Of these, Denia proper produced in 1876 over 2,500 tons of raisins, Jabea 1,700 tons, Oliva 1,600 tons, Pedreguer 1,000 tons, Retoria 900 tons, Jalon 850 tons, Ondara and Benisa 800 tons each. But, besides these, there are some twenty odd more villages or smaller raisin centers, which produce from 200 to 700 tons each, or an aggregate of 20,000 tons of raisins.

Soils and Appearance of the Districts.

—The soils of the province of Valencia, where the vineyards are situated, are of various kinds, such as cretaceous and calcareous soils, containing admixtures of clay, sand and gravel. The color is often red, changing to gray where irrigation has been practiced, but much of the soil is of an ashy white color, similar to that of bottom lands generally. In many of the lower situated plains, the soils are blackish or dark gray, especially so where stable or other manures have been used for years.

Many vineyards are situated on the hillsides or on the rolling lands, where the gravelly soils produce raisins of smaller size and in less quantity, but sweeter and finer flavored. But the largest bulk of the vineyards are on comparatively level land, which can be and which is irrigated. The raisins produced on these low grounds in the moist and cool valleys are larger, but not of equal flavor and sweetness. In wet seasons, the hillsides are preferred, the valley lands then being too wet and cold. Accordingly, as the seasons are wet and cold, or dry and warm, the various localities produce raisins of different qualities, which again are valued and paid for differently. The extent of the valley or plain lands decides the extent of the raisin districts, and of late years the rolling vineyards have decreased in quantity, while those on the plains have increased, until at the present time almost all the plain lands are occupied with raisin vineyards, especially in the Denia sub-district.

Climate.

—The climate of Denia and its surroundings is rather cold and windy; damaging spring frosts, as well as early fall rains, frequently interfere with the setting of the grapes and with the harvesting of the crop; it has even happened several times that the entire crop has been seriously injured by one of these, or by both causes combined. Farther north, or in the Valencia district proper, the climate is milder, and frost is rare. Oranges are here at home, while the culture of raisin grapes becomes less every year. North of Castellon the climatic conditions are such that no raisin culture is possible.

As compared with the climate of Malaga, that of Denia is much less favorable to the raisin grape. The production of sun-dried and undipped raisins in Denia is not possible, and, although it has been attempted several times, it has seldom succeeded. The rainfall of Denia averages twelve inches per year. The rainiest months are those of November, February and April, but the heaviest rainfall at one time occurs quite frequently in the first week of September, while light showers are not uncommon in August, at that time doing much damage to the grapes or the just exposed raisins.

Irrigation.

—Not only is irrigation necessary to grow the vines successfully and to produce an abundance of grapes, but the irrigation in the province of Valencia is necessary to the health and longevity of the vines. Nowhere else in Spain is the water so abundant, and no saving of the water is necessary in the majority of the districts. Through an abundance of water, the soil on the lowlands has now filled up to such an extent, that in the best vineyards the surface water is only from five to eight feet from the surface of the ground. Those vines which could not be irrigated have gradually become diseased, and the hillside vineyards are being rapidly abandoned and devoted to something else. Upon the abundance and constancy of the water depends the prosperity of the whole province, and there is hardly a more prosperous country in Spain. To show the close connection between irrigation and raisin production in Spain, it will no doubt interest many to know something of the irrigation system and the irrigation districts of the province of Valencia, than which no more important ones are found in Spain.

The district of Alicante is supplied with water from the river Monegre, and the Elche district from the river Minalapo. In the northern part of the province is the Murviado irrigation district, taking its water from the river Palencia. The Jucar irrigation district, situated immediately south of the huerta of Valencia, takes its water from the Jucar river, distributing 850 cubic feet of water per second upon some 50,000 acres of land.

The Valencia irrigation district consists of 26,350 acres of land close to the town of Valencia, and is watered by the river Guadalaviar, or, as it is generally called, the Turia. The water is distributed through eight canals, each carrying from 35 to 120 cubic feet of water per second, the combined low-water discharge of all the canals being from 250 to 350 cubic feet of water per second. Of the importance of irrigation in this district, we can judge when we learn that the above 26,350 acres contain 72,000 inhabitants and sixty-two villages, or an average of 1,774 people per square mile, not including the city of Valencia itself, with a population of 120,000 people. It is also remarkable that this enormous population on a territory not as large as the arable land surrounding any one of our principal inland towns in California, is not alone due to the irrigation and care of the land, but to the minute subdivision of the land, which makes this culture and irrigation possible. It is a practical illustration of the value of the colony system as inaugurated in California, showing what we can expect of our inland plains when they become fully irrigated and the land properly subdivided.

Quality of the Raisins.

—It has already been stated that the grapes grown in Denia are the Muscat of Alexandria, which were introduced there by the Moors. Farther south, in the Alicante district, other varieties are more common, but play no important part in the raisin production of the district. The Valencia raisins are inferior to those of Malaga, the want of heat requiring them to be dipped in lye before drying. This, again, gives these raisins a peculiar reddish, semi-transparent color, which unfits them for table raisins. The Valencia raisins are principally used for cooking; even the best grades of Valencias are inferior to the inferior grades of Malaga raisins. During the last season (1889) large quantities of Denia grapes were cured on the Malaga style, and with great success. Large quantities of such sun-dried Denias were sent in bulk to Malaga, and there repacked for export to the United States, the Malaga crop having so diminished that the usual demand could not be supplied. Years in which such sun-drying is possible in Denia are rare.

Planting and Care.

—The Muscat cuttings are planted generally in February. The best cuttings are considered to be those taken from vines at least six years old. The cuttings are set at various distances according to the richness of the soil. The richer the soil the less room is given the vines. Thus the vines are set either five by eleven feet or five by twelve feet, or, in other words, they are set in rows eleven or twelve feet apart, with the vines five feet apart in the row. The depth of the cutting is regulated by the moisture of the surface soil, but averages eighteen inches. The vines begin to bud in the middle of March, and are from the start subject to great care and constant cultivation. The first operation after the cutting is planted is to cut off the top bud as soon as the vine starts to grow, leaving the two shoots only from the two lower buds. No more shoots are allowed to grow the first year. Next winter the smaller of these two branches is cut off completely and the remaining branch is pruned back to two eyes. In the second year the young shoots from the vine are allowed to grow to ten inches or so long, when all are cut away except two of the strongest. Next winter again these are pruned so to leave only two eyes on each, or four buds on the whole vine. In the succeeding years the branches are gradually increased in number, but always pruned back to two eyes. After the vine is five years old, it is seldom increased as to branches; it is then always pruned back to the same number of spurs. It can be said that the Denia growers pay less attention to the quality of the raisins, and prune more to attain quantity. They leave more spurs on their vines than do those in Malaga, and in this respect resemble many of our own California growers, who frequently leave from twelve to fifteen spurs on a vine. The vines in Denia are also raised higher above the ground than in Malaga, very much as we have been in the habit of pruning our own vines. At the age of three years the vines come into bearing; but no fine raisins are made until the vines are five or six years old.

Dipping and Scalding.

—The dipping process is one of the greatest importance, and gives the peculiar characteristics to the Valencia or Denia raisins. As a similar process will sometime or other be more generally used in California, a more detailed description may prove interesting to California growers. We can probably not do better than to imitate them, although in mechanical appliances we will readily improve upon their methods. The dipping is always done at the drying ground or secadero. The larger part of the dipping apparatus, or the kettles, are placed under the ground so as to save heat and fuel. A trench eight or nine feet in length is dug to the depth of three or four feet. At one end is built a chimney protruding three or four feet above the level of the ground. In the other end of the trench is built a brick wall with an opening for feeding the fire. Some trenches are lined inside with bricks, making them more permanent and solid. On the top of this flue, and on a level with the ground, are built the kettles or boilers, containing not less than twenty gallons each. The boiler nearest the fire entrance is destined to contain a solution of lye or ashes, the one next to the chimney being for boiling water only.

The lye is made from the ashes of burnt vine cuttings, together with lime and sometimes some salt, by men who have acquired the art from years of experience, and who know by the appearance of the scalded grapes whether the solution is too strong or too weak. If too weak, the skins of the grapes will be insufficiently cut, which will delay the drying of the grapes, and cause them to rot if the weather is damp and foggy. If, again, the lye solution is too strong, the skin will be destroyed and the berries seriously injured.

The grapes to be dipped should be perfectly ripe. If dipped before, they will become inferior both as to color and taste. The perfect ripeness is a most important point. The grapes are picked in baskets of about ten pounds each, and carried to the scalder. The man nearest him on the right fills a perforated ladle with about twenty pounds of the grapes. The ladle is made either of wire netting or of tin or zinc, with large perforated holes about three-eighths of an inch wide. There is a scalder at each boiler. The first scalder dips the grapes in the scalding water for a second, and immediately hands them to the second scalder, who dips the same ladle in the boiling lye solution for not over two seconds. The grapes are then carefully turned out on trays to dry.

The dipping first in scalding water is of the greatest importance, both in washing off the dust of the grapes and in preparing them to receive the alkali wash with more effect. Since the hot-water process was introduced, the Valencia raisins have materially improved in quality. The grapes are never rinsed in cold water after being dipped, and it is more than likely that the lye prevents molding, as, according to A. B. Butler, dipped raisins are sometimes exposed to the rain for three weeks without being totally ruined. In California, our dipped and washed raisins spoil quickly if exposed to rain. The object of dipping is, of course, to slightly crack the skins so as to allow the water to readily evaporate. Dipped raisins dry sometimes in five days, while undipped raisins would require as many weeks. Efforts to produce sun-dried raisins without dipping them have repeatedly been made in Denia; but they are invariably spoiled by the rain, and lately two firms were ruined in their attempts to dispense with the dipping process.

Drying and Curing.

—After the grapes have been properly dipped, the drying proceeds very quickly. The grapes are immediately spread on cane trays or cañezos, about six feet long by three or four feet wide. These cane trays are made of the common Italian reed or Arundo donax, which grows everywhere, even in California, and is here incorrectly known as bamboo. The trays are made either of split or of entire canes tied strongly together. These trays are placed flat on the ground, only leaving enough space around each one to allow the workmen free access to the tray on all sides. After having been exposed to the sun for three days, the grapes are turned, in order to dry evenly on both sides. On the fifth day, the raisins are turned again, and, if the weather has been favorable, many of the raisins are then ready to pack. A day or two after this, all the raisins are ready, and are collected and housed. If, again, the weather has been unfavorable, the drying is very much delayed. At the approach of rain, the mats or trays are taken up and piled on the top of each other, under sheds previously made. Every drying ground has stationary appliances for this purpose. These simply consist of poles stuck in the ground, and extending five or six feet above the same. Other cross-rafters or scantlings are nailed between the poles, thus forming rows of roofless sheds eight or nine feet wide, of greater or shorter length. Painted canvas, or simply mats or empty reed trays, are used as covers, under which the raisin trays are piled. Under and between each tray are placed five little cubes of wood, for the purpose of lifting the tray and preventing it from pressing too heavily on the grapes underneath.

Packing and Disposing of the Crop.

—When at last the raisins are dried, they are either stored by the producer, or, as is more generally the case, are taken to the merchant or packer who has supplied the grower’s wants during the year in anticipation of the coming crop. There are thus a number of special packers in Denia, who own large and splendid packing-houses in which the crop is yearly handled. The grower never packs himself, the enhanced value of the raisins not being sufficient to warrant the trouble. One of the best and by far the largest packing-houses in Denia is owned by J. D. Arquimbau. A more perfectly equipped establishment is not found anywhere else.

All of the packing is done by women, while the men do the carting of the raisins from the vineyards to the packing-houses. During the balance of the year, when there is no more work in the packing-houses, these very men occupy themselves with the sardine fishery, while their wives then dress the sardines and pack them in oil. They have thus work all the year round,—an absolute necessity in a country where the wages are so small, and where the poor man has no chance to save up a capital. The wages paid for packing in Denia is only fifteen cents per day; while in Malaga the same work commands from forty to sixty cents per day. In some of the warehouses in Denia, from two to three hundred women are employed, as well as a number of men. The boxes now used are halves of twenty-eight pounds, or quarters of fourteen pounds each. The large or whole boxes of fifty-six pounds each are no longer in use. The raisins are all packed “off-stalk,” or, as we say, “loose.” Bunch or stem raisins, or “on-stalk” raisins, are seldom seen. This great improvement in packing is of recent origin, and is due entirely to the influence of English merchants. Some thirty years ago, the raisin industry of Valencia had so deteriorated, that it threatened to entirely cease. The cause of the deterioration was principally the habit of the buyers to pay for crops, not according to the quality of the raisins, but according to the quantity. The small farmer with a few hundred pounds of raisins carefully cured was paid less, or at least not any more, than the man who had hundreds of tons carelessly cured. As a consequence, it was to no one’s interest to take any particular pains in curing. The raisins deteriorated; no care was paid to packing; anything, almost, stalks, dirt and bruised berries were dumped in boxes together; brands, trade-marks and labels were unknown. The whole business was apparently going to ruin. The orders from England became less and less every year. Those from America almost ceased. The “equality price” or “average price,” which has been so much in vogue in California, actually ruined the Valencia raisin industry. We ought to take a lesson from them, and change this system in time, or we will be in the same bad fix as they were.

The improvement in Valencia raisins was entirely due to the energetic efforts of English gentlemen. Mr. George Graham, agent for an English firm, established himself in Valencia, investigated the raisin business, and, seeing the true cause of the ruin, set himself to work to remedy the same. He introduced better methods in growing, curing and packing; and through his efforts a better price was paid for a better grade of raisins, and it was not long before the raisin business was on an entirely different footing. The object of the grower was from that on, not only to increase the quantity, but to increase the quality as well. To begin with, the raisins were shipped off-stalk or loose; but the boxes were not faced. Now the raisin boxes are all faced, and the raisins are carefully selected and assorted. As a consequence, the Denia trade has of late years increased enormously, until at present all the land available has been planted to raisins. There is at present but little or no first-class raisin land left in Denia, and it looks as if the raisin production there could not be further expanded.

Export and Production.

—Although the raisin industry had long existed in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it assumed an importance. They were already known as Duracinae by the Romans. Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it soon became a prominent industry, and the export of raisins to England was already of some consequence in the time of William and Mary. In the year 1638, Lewis Roberts, in his merchant map of commerce, informs us that Denia raisins cost eighteen rials or three shillings per hundred weight. In 1664, Gandia raisins were quite famous, and were known as Pasas. At the end of the last century, the raisins from Denia and Liria reached forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, six thousand; France, six thousand; England, twenty-eight thousand,—equal to one million, four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin export from Valencia had dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, it had again risen to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty thousand tons. Of these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes were exported to the United States, one million, three hundred and eighty-five thousand were sent to England, and four hundred and thirty-six thousand found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. In 1888, the yield was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four hundred and twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop would have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the same time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, eight hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each.

When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly produced in California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes or more imported could and should be supplied by us, it would seem that our fears of overproduction will not immediately be realized. The tendency of the raisin market is now to supplant these Valencia dipped raisins with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, the California Sultanas being considered superior for the same purpose that Valencias were formerly used.

CORINTH AND CURRANTS.

Historical and Geographical Notes.

—The principal and only raisins of any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece are the currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its supposed origin from the town of Corinth, and of their having been mentioned by Pliny in the year 75 A. D. The currants must thus very early have been of considerable importance as a commercial product, although the great increase in their production is of more recent date. The crusades which brought the nations of the North in contact with the Orient and the South also spread the knowledge of the Grecian currants to the distant parts of Europe. After the Latin conquest, currants became a commercial article, and we have every reason to suppose that, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century, currants had reached the English shores, and that in the middle of the fourteenth century the English trade was fully established. Raysins of Corauntz were quoted in 1374 at two pence and three farthings per pound, equivalent to one dollar and twenty-five cents in our money at its present value. In 1513, the first English consul was appointed at Chios, and from that time on a direct traffic was maintained between the Grecian Islands and the North of Europe. In 1582, Hakluyt writes that efforts had been made to introduce the coren plant or vine into England, but that the same failed to fruit. The first introduction of the Zante vine into England is supposed by Anderson to have taken place in 1533. In the end of the sixteenth century, the currant traders were in full intercourse with the Venetians on the Island of Zante, and the Turks on the mainland or Morea. In 1581, the Levant Company received a monopoly in the trade of the small fruits called currants, being the raysins of Corinth. According to Wheler, who traveled in the Ionian Islands in 1675, Zante produced enough currants to charge five or six vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and Nathaligo, Missolonghi and Patros one each. Some few were also brought down from the Gulf of Lepanto.

As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the original home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held that their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French consul in Greece in 1790, says: “The fruit is not indigenous to Morea. No writer before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of my inquiries is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morea about 1580. It is true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has similarly disappeared from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain it was cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the country.” This account does not agree with the statements of Comte Grasset St. Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 1781. He states, in his History of the Ionian Islands, that “the first plants were imported from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago” (or about 1580). There are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; but the date is fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating to custom duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much before 1553, and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then held Morea, to the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, who in fact forbade them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the principal export place for the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 1553 describes Zante, speaks of other products of the island, but not of currants.

Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island were “oyle and currants.” The latter, then, must have been introduced some time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a Scotch traveler who in 1609 visited the islands and published an account of the same in 1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, Zante produced one hundred and sixty thousand chickens of currants, each chicken of gold being equal to nine shillings of English money. And he adds that the custom duties on those currants amounted to twenty-two thousand piasters (one piaster is equivalent to six shillings), a sum of money which those Islanders could not have afforded (they having been, not above sixty years ago, but a base, beggarly people, and in an obscure place) if it were not that in England there are some who cannot digest bread, etc., without these currants. This seems to imply that, since the introduction of the currant culture in the Island of Zante about the year 1550, the Zanteans had suddenly become comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this important industry spread, that in 1610, according to Sandys, the chief export of both Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 1612, Coryat says that “Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants.” Fynes Moryson, in his “Itinerary” published in 1617, states that “the English merchant vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from Petrasso in the Gulfe of Corinth.” Tavernier says, in 1678, that, “Corinth exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, which is all the trade from those two places.” In 1682, Wheler states that “the ports of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three together having enough to lade only one good ship every year.” Randolph, in 1689, mentions that currants were first planted on the plains of Corinth, and that the plain about Vostizza produced corn, currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that it produced two thousand tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, through the fostering care of the Venetians, the currant trade was transplanted from the mainland of Morea to the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia, there to become of almost national importance. Until the Turks were expelled from Morea, the latter never made any serious efforts to recover the lost trade. First in later times the culture of currants has again spread on the mainland, especially on the northern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to-day the combined production of the Morean vineyards is largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands.

In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian Islands,—Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions.

Characteristics and Quality.

—The currants are small, seedless raisins produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of Indian corn or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very sweet, with a strong flavor and aroma. The raisins are similarly aromatic and very sweet, sometimes semi-transparent, but generally dark violet. The flavor of the raisins is entirely distinct from the Muscatel, and is very superior to that of the also seedless Sultana raisins.

Soil and Irrigation.

—The soil best suited to the currant grape is a calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily worked. Such marls are also prized for their great power of retaining moisture. But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and Ithaca in the most different soils and situations. They are found in gray marls, in red clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, in the most widely different situations. The soil of Zante contains a small percentage of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many considered indispensable for the successful and profitable culture of the currant vine. The currant vine thrives especially in low and rich land which can be irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to the perfect development of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, are not irrigated, the irrigation, of course, only being practicable on the plains. This irrigation is practiced from October to the end of December, often while the natural rainfall supplies the artificial watering. The lands are generally small freeholdings, owned by the peasants. The most valuable currant vineyards are situated on the rich and level valley lands.

Preparation of the Land for Irrigation.

—The preparation of the land for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever level enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The surface is therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or flats, each one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a network of ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of the soil. Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in November and December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, the water sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. In perfectly arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the water flows from one check to another, and is first shut off at the advent of the New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. By this plentiful irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, and remains saturated until the next season, when rain again sets in and fills the irrigation canals. No summer irrigation is used in old vineyards, and in young vineyards only in case of great necessity.

Distances of the Currant Vines.

—The vines are set at various distances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In some places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four still exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet apart, and each group distant six feet from each other either way. Of late, however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because the soil is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines closer one way than the other.

Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting.

—Great importance is attached to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new strains. Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they are considered to produce inferior vines, and not do as well. To procure cuttings or vines, the old vines are sometimes cut a few inches below the surface of the soil, causing the parent plant to throw off numerous suckers or shoots, which the following winter are separated and used as we do rooted vines here in California. Three or four years will elapse before they come into regular bearing. Some vineyards are produced by grafting the black currant on the wine grape, and many wine vineyards that do not pay are thus transformed into paying raisin vineyards. The grafted vines come into bearing much sooner than those grown from cuttings. The grafting is performed in Zante as follows: The soil is dug away from the main trunk of the old vine to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches, and the trunk cut off square at the bottom of the pit. Two or three scions are then inserted in the trunk, and made to slightly project above the ground, in no case with more than two or three eyes. Clay is then applied to the joint of the graft, and the trunk slightly covered with leaves, and the hole then filled up with soil. The grafting is done in the spring, and the cuttings must be kept dormant in dark and cool cellars.

Pruning the Vines.

—The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, the vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at that time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, the regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on every spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines in Greece as there are in California, each one having his favorite methods and theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some vineyardists prefer to delay the second pruning until after the vines have started to bud out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks old, the old wood is so cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run down on the bud. Bleeding is at any time considered injurious. The principal pruning is therefore conducted in February, as being the time most suitable to the currant grape and conducive to the best crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent Zanteote currant grower, told Dr. Davy (Ionian Islands, page 343) that he had at one time experimented with pruning the currant vine at different times of the year. Those pruned in December yielded very few grapes, which were large; those pruned in April gave plenty, but very small berries. Again, those pruned in February were in every way the best. Mr. Manoti added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his experiments they would have laughed at him, and said, “Whoever thinks of pruning the uva passa (or currant) in December or April.” This shows how much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon the methods which have been handed down to them from their forefathers. As we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, very much in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three spurs are allowed to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Summer pruning or topping the branches is never practiced on the currant vines, but generally on the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant branches are carefully guarded, and in order that they may not break are tied to stakes from four to five feet high.

Care of the Vineyard.

—After irrigation is over, the vineyards are dug over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of the ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both to the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle of April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit is ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere begun. The stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 per thousand, and constitute the most expensive item in the construction of a currant vineyard.

The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over the world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur.

Ringing the Branches.

—A process much used in the currant vineyards is the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some of the main branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark is separated from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends in the interior of the branch, but which returns by the bark, is thus prevented from returning, and must remain in the branch. The effect is that a large number of clusters are formed with berries both larger and sweeter than those not thus treated. But the practice is not without its drawbacks. In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was first introduced, it was soon discovered that the ringed vines began to fail after two or three years, and the method had to be modified or abandoned. In Morea, where the soil is moister and richer, the ringing did not prove as dangerous, and is yet practiced, though great care is taken that the same branch is never girdled or ringed in two successive years. Only the strongest vines are able to resist the exhausting effects of the process; the weaker ones should never be forced to overproduce.

The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered most beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found everywhere among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches.

Drying and Curing.

—The drying and curing of the currant grapes are done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered with fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a paste. When this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm but elastic, and entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground is considered the best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made of the cleared soil. The currants dried on the latter are always full of sand and dirt to an alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in the market. The bunches are turned several times until dry, when they are raked over with a wooden rake or broom, by which process the stalks are separated from the berries. The berries are now gathered, and the better qualities are winnowed in machines like our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat the currants, which is simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. The currants are here put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure become so hard and solid that, when removing the berries, a sharp spade is used for digging. The vintage begins in July in Zante; Cephalonia grapes ripen almost one week earlier.

Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece.

—In the Grecian Islands and Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, it will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year’s cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different according to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. The value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per acre,—four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a vineyard in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of the plantation or the capital invested. The interest on the same is never considered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own farmers, who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take into consideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is almost impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following will serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields 3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per pound, or $64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, leaving a yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is not a true statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. If the same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little or no profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables the peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best vineyards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, generally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or government officer.

As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant raisins is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this to the producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, this way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on commission, and what this means we who have had experience in the raisin business in this State all know. We will see how a calculation of an acre of currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into consideration:

In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. He makes, no doubt, fair wages according to his own ideas, and as he has paid for his capital in labor, and probably never handled a dollar of the same, he considers himself comparatively well-to-do. But, as currant vineyards sometimes sell, and sell high, too, it is simply unaccountable that the interest is never taken into consideration in estimating the profits of the grower. The currant industry is, I believe, the only one in the world in which this is not done. I have thus extensively dwelt upon the profits and expenses of this industry in its native country, on account of the many attempts to introduce the growing of currants here in California. The question with us is, will it pay. Our advantage is that our currants would be protected; but still it is very doubtful if currant plantations would ever pay enough to warrant us to engage in the same. The price paid at present is too low, and, as long as Muscatels bring a higher price, it will probably be the favorite grape with us.

Consumption and Production.

—The importation of currants to England was, at the end of the last century, about 3,600 tons. In 1832 this had risen to 7,135 tons, in 1864 to 37,151 tons, and in 1876 to 48,595 tons. As regards the production of currants in Greece, the average yield from 1816 to 1826 was, for Cephalonia, 2,000 tons, for Zante 3,000 tons, and for Morea 4,000 tons or over. From that time on the exportations from Zante and Cephalonia increased, while the export of Morea decreased. Thus, in 1833, Zante and Cephalonia exported about 11,000 tons, and Morea only 2,000 tons, this principally on account of the Greek revolution. In 1840, the three places exported 14,206 tons, which again in 1849 had risen to 30,850 tons, in 1858 to 32,950 tons, in 1868 to 55,283 tons, and in 1876 to 86,104 tons. This large crop was exported as follows: England, 60,263 tons; Germany, 1,475 tons; Holland, 4,847 tons; Trieste, 3,241 tons; America, 11,225 tons; Belgium, 4,105 tons; Various, 948 tons.

Since that time the production of currants has increased greatly in Greece, especially on the mainland, and now it reaches yearly from 126,000 to 130,000 tons. During the last four years the production has been about as follows (according to L. C. Crowe in the California Fruit-grower): 1884, 130,000 tons; 1885, 114,000 tons; 1886, 126,000 tons; 1887, 127,000 tons.

In 1886 this crop was produced in the following places:

Of this crop the United States imported as follows (the freight to New York in 1886 ranging from 17s. 6d. to 20s. per ton, gross): 1883, 13,895 tons; 1884, 10,175 tons; 1885, 8,283 tons; 1886, 8,755 tons.

In the United States, the consumption of currants has increased largely during the last twenty-five years. In 1874, we imported 14,141,797 pounds of currants; but in 1888 the importations had increased to 30,636,424 pounds, valued at $1,176,532. The duty is now one cent per pound in this country; while in England it is seven shillings per hundred pounds.

The currants exported to the United States are known as Provincial currants or American staple, and are not considered the best quality; they are grown principally in Trifylla and Pylia and are shipped from the ports Zante and Patras. Some come also from Vostizza, Catacolo, Kalamata, Nauplia and Cephalonia. The Kalamata currants are inferior and are mostly exported to France for brandy and wine making. The choicest currants are those grown in Zante, and there known as “Cascalina.” They go mostly to England, while the other products of the islands go to Belgium, Holland and Northern Germany.

Currants in California.

—California has so far not cut any figure as a currant-producing country, not because the currants will not grow here, but because no one has ever seriously engaged in their culture. Currant grapevines are scattered all over the State; but, to our knowledge, no plantations are larger than an acre or two. In Fresno, a few acres of currants are found in the Mirabelle Vineyard east of town, and a few hundred vines are also grown on the Raisina Vineyard in the Central Colony. Outside of these we know of only scattered vines. These currants are all of the white variety, which is considered inferior to the black currant of Zante and the mainland of Greece. When dried, they produce a most beautiful semi-transparent raisin, entirely seedless, with a very thin skin and of very fine flavor. The yield, however, has from some cause or other not been equal to expectations, and, the price of currants being lower than that of other raisins, the former has not been considered as profitable as the Muscatels. Until we import the true black currant from Zante and find the most suitable locality to grow them, it is not likely that currant culture will make much headway in this country. We have, however, no doubt that, with our various climates, many places will be found in California where the currant will yield enough to pay, provided our raisinmen will be satisfied with a reasonable profit.

SMYRNA RAISINS.

Districts in Smyrna: Their Extent and Climate.

—The port of Smyrna, so famous for its dried figs, is hardly less renowned for the immense quantity of raisins and dried grapes of different kinds which are shipped from there to all parts of the world. While Smyrna figs are better known than Smyrna raisins, the latter are by far the most important industry. Thus from 1880 to 1881 the raisin crop exported from Smyrna was valued at $4,602,388; while the value of the fig crop did not exceed $1,646,998, or about three million dollars less than the former. Since that time the raisin trade has yet further increased, until it to-day reaches one hundred thousand tons of raisins and dried grapes. Unlike the figs, which are only grown in the interior valleys some thirty to sixty miles from Smyrna, the grapes which produce the raisins are grown in the immediate vicinity of the town. The large territory which exports the Smyrna raisins can, however, be divided into several sub-districts, each one having some characteristics of its own, both as regards quality of raisins, time of ripening, etc. These districts are: Chesme, Vourla, Yerly and Carabourna. The principal variety of grape grown in these districts is the Sultana, a seedless grape with enormous bunches. Many other varieties are found there also, such as “black” and “red,” the latter said to be identical with the Spanish Muscat of Alexandria, which I doubt.

The Chesme district is situated to the west on the peninsula near Smyrna, its principal port for exportation of the crop being the town of Chesme. The Chesme raisins are considered inferior to those of the other districts. Three-fourths of the raisins from the district are exported to Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, Amsterdam, and to Trieste in Austria. The latter town is the main distributing point for most of the raisins grown in the eastern Mediterranean raisin districts.

The Carabourna or Karabournou district produces the best raisins,—both of the Sultanas, the red and the black. The district is situated to the east and north on the same peninsula as Chesme. The district is rough and hilly, but the whole is cultivated to vines. The Carabourna “Elemês” go about one-half to Russia, the balance to England and Trieste.

The Vourla district consists of a fertile plain lying on the isthmus between the Bay of Smyrna and Scala Nova or Ephesus. The export place is the port of Vourla, one of the finest harbors on the coast of Asia Minor, and often the meeting place for fleets of the Western nations of Europe during their remonstrances in Turkish waters.

The Yerly district immediately surrounds the town of Smyrna, and extends from Nymphio in the east to Tourbali in the south and Sivri-Hissar in the west, thus bordering the Vourla district. Yerly Sultanas are the earliest in the market, sometimes being ready in the first weeks of August.

Small quantities of raisins also come from Tyra, Bairdir, Aidin and other places in the fig districts in the interior. The Island of Samos, off the coast of Asia Minor, produces raisins of several kinds, such as Sultanas, black raisins, principally for distilling abroad, and Muscatel raisins, the latter reaching three thousand tons in favorable seasons. The Island of Cos or Stanchio is also famous for its Sultana raisins, said to be the finest of any produced in Turkey.

The climate of the Smyrna raisin districts is very mild, allowing farm labor to be performed the year round. The temperature seldom falls below the freezing point, while from the middle of May to the middle of September it ranges from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. During the summer, the Imbat or seabreeze tempers the heat and makes the climate pleasant to live in. The grapes begin to ripen about July first, the Sultana grapes being the earliest. The rainfall is abundant during the rainy months of the year, September to April, and averages twenty-five inches, varying from fifteen inches in dry seasons to thirty-three inches in very wet years. The following table of the rainfall is taken from the consular reports published in 1884:

Table showing the monthly rainfall in the city of Smyrna, in inches and hundredths of inches, during the nineteen years ending with 1882.

Compiled by W. E. Stevens, Consul at Smyrna.

As will be seen, most of the vineyards are situated within the reach of the seabreezes, some even being almost on the edge of the waters of the Mediterranean. The best vineyards are those which are situated inland from seven to twenty miles from the coast. The vineyard districts are all rough and hilly, except those in the Vourla district, which are on comparatively level ground. While some vineyards stretch from the seashore, others reach an elevation of four hundred feet or over. The soil varies with the districts. The best soil for the Sultanas is considered to be hippurite limestone soil, common in some districts. This white, marly soil is in places mixed with a yellow-ocher-colored loam, with sand and gravel. The abundance of the rainfall makes irrigation unnecessary, and no vines are grown with irrigation.

Care of the Vines.

—While no general irrigation is needed, the young vines are watered by hand in years of exceptionally light rainfall. The vines are generally grown from rooted cuttings, which have been planted in trenches the year before. Previous to the planting of a vineyard, the soil is dug to the depth of three or four feet. If this can be done the year before planting, it is considered better, as resulting in a quicker and stronger growth of the vines.

In older vineyards, the vines are set in rows six or seven feet apart, and with three or four feet between the rows. The vines are not grown to standards, but from branching stalks from one to two and a half feet high, with an average height of one and a half feet from the ground. No stakes are used, and only occasionally is there seen a prop under heavier loaded branches.

The pruning is done in the winter, when the vines are comparatively dormant. The superfluous branches are then cut away, and the remaining ones are cut to two or three eyes each. The cultivation was, until lately, performed in the simplest way with pick and spade. The first digging is done in January, at which time also the ground is manured. This is done by digging pits and trenches in the vineyard, which are filled with goat and camel dung. These trenches remain open for a month or more, and are after that time filled in. The first digging in the soil is done in November, the second one in January and February, when, in leveling the ground, it is at the same time dug over again one foot or more. The third or last digging is performed in March, when simply the weeds are spaded under. Of late years, vineyardists from other Mediterranean districts have settled in Smyrna and brought with them better methods. Greek farmers have especially done much to improve the old ways of cultivation used by the slovenly or ignorant natives.

In May, the young shoots are pinched back after the grapes have set well and began to develop. The pinching of the ends produces a second crop, which, besides being later, also consists of smaller grapes than the first. All sterile and inferior shoots are then cut off, and this is repeated during the summer in order that the vines may not be weakened unnecessarily. The vines come into bearing in the third year, begin to pay expenses in the fourth year, and leave a profit in the fifth year after being set out. In the seventh and eighth years the vines are considered in full bearing.

The Sultana grapes begin to ripen in July. The vintage begins towards the end of July, and lasts until the middle of August. Other varieties of grapes are later, lasting from the middle of August to the end of September, their vintage seldom lasting as late as the first week of October. The first raisins are ready about August 1st, and the last Sultanas are all in by September 1st, the other varieties of raisins coming in later.

Dipping, Drying and Curing.

—The curing of the grapes into raisins requires great care, and nowhere is any more skill shown than in Smyrna. Its raisins are the most beautiful of any, their splendid appearance and transparency being due to the process employed. The drying is done on drying-floors, which sometimes consist of the bare ground only, at other times of elevated beds of earth a foot or so high. When the soil is not naturally hard and suitable for drying-floors, it is first prepared by cutting off the weeds, and is then watered and packed until a smooth and hard surface is produced. This hard bed is sometimes left bare, and at other times covered with matting. In other places the grapes are dried on canvas, or on trays made of the Italian reed, or of grasses. These trays are raised on props three or four inches above the ground, and are loose so that they may be put on top of each other to exclude the sun, rain or fog, according to locality and season. Great stress is laid upon having the grapes fully ripe. Before thus exposed, the grapes are dipped in a solution of lye and oil, and upon the skill in this performance depends the beauty and value of the raisins. A potash is made from the ashes of the vine cuttings of the previous year. About one gallon of this potash solution is mixed with from twenty to twenty-five gallons of water, making a weak lye solution of a strength of from five to six degrees in Beaume’s “Lyeometer.” A similar strength would be obtained by dissolving one pound of pearl ash in ten gallons of water. Tubs of wood or zinc of the size of two and a half by two feet are used for dipping. To every such tub of twenty-five gallons is added from one-fourth to two gallons of olive oil. The latter quantity is used in the Karabournou district, where the finest raisins are made. When of proper strength as regards both oil and lye, the wash runs off from the bunches smoothly; when, again, the wash runs off in small globules, there is a deficiency of either oil or potash. The grapes are loaded in small baskets of twenty-five pounds each, and immersed in the wash for half a minute. They are then taken out and spread either on the ground or on trays or canvas. In the interior, where the sun is hot, the reed mats are placed on top of each other to exclude the sun. The same is also done if rain or fog is feared. After a few days of exposure, and when partially dried, the raisins are sprinkled every morning with the same lye solution, but without oil. The Sultanas are dried in from five to eight days. This dipping process is also used for the larger Muscatels, but the lye is made stronger, probably reaching the proportion of about one and a half pounds of pearl ash to five gallons of water. The carefully dipped raisins have a pure greenish amber color, and a peculiar flavor. They are worth twenty per cent more than undipped fruit.

The Sultanas of the better grades are now sold off-stalk or loose. The finest brands are the Chesme elemê, or Chesme select. Elemê means choice or select, and is used both for raisins and figs. The yield of an acre of Sultana vines varies in different vineyards, according to the quality of the soil. A good yield is considered about seven tons of fresh grapes, or about two and a third tons of raisins.

The price of the Smyrna Sultanas fluctuates considerably; but it may be said that the best grades are always from twenty-five to thirty per cent higher than the dipped raisins of Valencia. Thus, in 1843, dipped Valencias brought six and a quarter cents, while the Smyrna Sultanas brought ten cents. In 1844, the Valencias were quoted at ten cents, while the Sultanas brought twenty cents per pound. Of late years, the Smyrna Sultanas have fluctuated between four and a half and twelve and a half cents per pound.

Production and Export.