A description will now be given of the organization of the British Administrative Services designed for the Expeditionary Force of six Divisions with a Cavalry Division and two Mounted Brigades.
At the head of each Administrative Service is a Director, who is the adviser of the C.-in-C. on technical matters connected with the Service he administers. He is responsible for providing for the requirements which his Service is designed to meet, subject to the instructions of that branch of the Staff to which the C.-in-C. has delegated his authority in this respect.
A representative of each Director is allotted to the Staff of the L. of C. and of the Subordinate Commands, to whom he holds the same position as his Director does to the Staff of the C.-in-C. The Services are thus kept in close touch with the Staff, so as to conform readily to the movements and requirements of the Troops.
The following is a list of the Directors, and shows the nature of the duty of the Administrative Service which each directs.
Director of Army Signals: Service of inter-communication.
Director of Army Medical Services: Care of the sick and wounded; sanitation.
Director of Army Transport: Provision of transport.
Director of Army Supplies: Provision of food, forage, fuel, and light.
Director of Army Ordnance Services: Provision of ammunition, equipment, clothing, and stores.
Director of Army Veterinary Service: Care of animals.
Director of Army Remounts: Providing fresh horses.
Director of Army Railways: Working of railways.
Director of Army Works: Engineer works on the L. of C.
Director of Army Postal Services.
The Service of Army Signals is controlled by the General Staff, and the Medical Services by the Adjutant-General’s Branch, for the reasons previously explained, in describing the organization of the Staff, in Chapter VI. All the other Directors, and their representatives with Subordinate Commands, work under the supervision of the Quarter-Master-General’s Branch of the Staff.
Besides the above Directors, and the Administrative Services they control, the following Officials and Departments form part of the General Head-Quarters of the Army in the Field.
A Deputy Judge-Advocate-General, for legal advice, and a Principal Chaplain are attached to Head-Quarters of the C.-in-C., and are placed under the Adjutant-General.
An Accounts Department, under the Financial Adviser attached to Head-Quarters, and a Record Office, to deal with correspondence, will be established at the Base.
Of the officers enumerated above, the first four Directors, those of Army Signals, Medical Services, Transport, and Supplies, accompany General Head-Quarters in the field. The remainder are usually attached to the Head-Quarters of the Lines of Communication, where the Services they administer are mainly employed.
It is desirable, therefore, that a sketch of the organization of the Administrative Services should be prefaced by one of that of the Lines of Communication (L. of C.), on which they mainly act. The normal L. of C. for which these Services are calculated is a Railway 100 miles long reaching from a Sea Base to Railhead, and thence by two roads 30 miles long to two Advanced Bases.
The defence of the L. of C. is now entirely separated from its administration, and is entrusted to an Officer styled the Commander of L. of C. Defences, who is also responsible for its military government when in hostile territory. To this officer are allotted certain “L. of C. Defence Troops” (two battalions for the normal L. of C. laid down). The L. of C. is divided into sections for defence, each under a subordinate “L. of C. Defence Commander.”
The administration of the L. of C. is vested in an Officer styled the Inspector-General of Communications, who has command over all the Administrative Services on the L. of C., controls their working, and regulates the traffic on the L. of C. He has a Staff, to which are attached the Heads of the Administrative Services, or their representatives. The L. of C. consists essentially of one or more Advanced Bases close in rear of the Army, a Railhead (beyond which railway service is not organized), various intermediate Sections, or Posts, as required, and, most important of all, the Base, at the end farthest from the front, and nearest home. The sections may be conterminous with the sections of defence. For each of these portions of the L. of C. there is an Administrative Commandant in charge of its interior economy, and responsible for forwarding the traffic on the L. of C. through his section.
Each of the Administrative Services will now be discussed in detail; those which are in part with the Fighting Troops at the front being described in this chapter, those which are entirely on the L. of C. in the next.
It is only in the armies of England and the United States that a complete system of inter-communication between all parts of the Army has been organized. Such a system has not been fully developed in foreign armies, but its necessity is more than ever pressing, owing to the wide dispersion of forces in war, and the need for rapid transmission of Information as to the enemy’s movements from the Front to Head-Quarters, and of Orders from the several Head-Quarters to the Troops.
The means of communication in war are:
Electric: i.e. Telegraph, telephone, wireless.
Visual: i.e. Flag, lamp, or heliograph.
Manual: i.e. Orderlies (mounted, bicycle, or foot); a system of relay posts served by despatch riders; motor cars or motor cycles.
Balloons, aeroplanes, and kites.
Balloons were first used by the French at the Battle of Fleurus in 1794, and are being experimented on by many nations at present. There will be six balloons, of which three can be worked at one time, with the British Army of six Divisions, and probably two balloons to each German Army Corps.
The whole system of inter-communication in the British Expeditionary Force is under the Director of Army Signals, who is at General Head-Quarters, in close connection with the General Staff.
Communication Units are provided for General Head-Quarters and Divisions, and also on the L. of C., as follows:
Cavalry Division: 1 Wireless Telegraph Company.
Infantry Division: 1 Telegraph Company.
General Head-Quarters: 2 Cable Telegraph Companies; 2 Air-line Companies; 3 Balloon Companies.
Lines of Communication: 2 Telegraph Companies.
The following are the details of the communication provided by these units, and of their composition:
The Wireless Telegraph Company provides communication between General Head-Quarters and the Cavalry Division, up to 80 miles, and also inter-communication in the Cavalry Division, between Head-Quarters and the Brigades, up to 20 miles.
The Company is composed as follows: A Head-Quarters Section, for communication with General Head-Quarters, and with detached Brigades; three Sections for three detached Brigades (the fourth Brigade being with Divisional Head-Quarters). Each of these Sections carries its wireless equipment in a wagon, but is also provided with 3 pack horses to carry it. The Head-Quarters Section has equipment for 5 large stations—one for communication with the three Sections, two detached to General Head-Quarters, and two for communicating with the latter. These duplicate stations allow of one pair being ready for work while the other pair are moving into new positions as the Head-Quarters advance.
The strength of the Company is 136, with 114 horses—namely: 5 Officers, 6 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 1 Trumpeter, 120 rank and file, of whom 60 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 16 wagons, 46 riding horses, and 4 bicycles.
The Divisional Telegraph Company provides for internal communication in the Division. It comprises 3 Detachments, each providing a line of cable 10 miles long, with 3 telegraph offices for communication with the 3 Brigades.
The strength of the Company is 61, with 41 horses—namely: 2 Officers, 3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 55 rank and file, of whom 35 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 6 wagons, 21 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
There are 2 “Cable Companies” and 2 “Air-line Companies” at General Head-Quarters. The former provide temporary communication between General Head-Quarters and Divisions or Army Detachments; the latter, communication of a more permanent character between General Head-Quarters and the Advanced Base.
The “Cable Company” comprises a Head-Quarters, and four Sections, or 9 detachments, each providing 10 miles of cable line, and 3 telegraph offices.
The strength of the Company is 176, with 125 horses—namely: 6 Officers, 7 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 157 rank and file, of whom 100 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 19 wagons, 61 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
The “Air-line Company” comprises a Head-Quarters and three Sections, each of 2 detachments, providing 20 miles of air-line, 8 miles of cable, and 6 offices.
The strength of the Company is 225, with 158 horses—namely: 6 Officers, 12 Sergeants, 5 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 200 rank and file, of whom 120 are available for the telegraph work.
There are 22 wagons, 52 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
Three Balloon Companies are allotted as Army Troops, each to work one balloon and one set of kites, with telephones to connect the observer up in the captive balloon or kite with the ground.
The strength of a Company is 67, with 52 horses—namely: 3 Officers, 3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 1 Bugler, 59 rank and file, of whom 30 are available for the ballooning work.
There are 3 wagons for equipment, 6 reservoir wagons for gas, 8 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.
Note.—In the strength of all the above Engineer Units are included 2 men of the Medical Corps attached.
The above network of telegraphic inter-communication, extending between all Head-Quarters, is supplemented within the Units of the Field Force by a system of Signalling.
Each Division has a Divisional Signalling Officer, with a small detachment of Signallers—4 men in the Cavalry Division, and a Sergeant and 6 men in the Infantry Division.
Each Brigade has a Brigade Signalling Officer and 4 Signallers.
Each Cavalry Regiment and Mounted Infantry Battalion has a Signalling Sergeant, with 27 Signallers (9 per squadron).
Each Infantry Regiment has a Signalling Officer and Sergeant, with 32 Signallers (4 per company).
Each Divisional Artillery Head-Quarters has 4 Signallers.
Every Artillery Brigade has 2 Signallers.
Every Battery has 5 Signallers.
A system of Telephones is, in addition, provided for each Infantry Brigade. There is a Telephone Detachment to work under the Brigade Signalling Officer. It consists of a N.C.O. and 5 privates, with a cart and a pack mule to carry the equipment, for which 2 drivers are allotted.
Road Transport alone will be here considered. This is the most important of the Administrative Services, as on it depend the mobility of the Force, and the working of the Supply, Medical, and Stores Services. Transport is required with the Units at the front, to carry the baggage and stores of the troops, and their ammunition and food for daily consumption, and to enable field ambulances to accompany the army. Transport is also required on the Lines of Communication, to bring up ammunition and food from the base to the front, and to remove the wounded to the base.
It is agreed that Transport must be organized on a military basis when accompanying troops at the front, where civil transport is hardly dependable; but to provide the vast amount required in rear of the army on the L. of C. would demand more military Transport than could be kept up in peace, and Auxiliary Transport has to be collected from civil services for this purpose.
It is obvious that without a carefully worked out system of organization for its Transport, an army in the field will be helpless from want of ammunition and food, and slow and uncertain in its movements; the sick and wounded will lack attention; and the troops cannot fail to undergo hardships and privations, which will have a bad effect on their morale and fighting power.
Owing to the enormous amount of food required for an army, the main function of the Transport is to carry supplies, so that the connection between Transport and Supply is a very intimate one. It has been found desirable, therefore, to amalgamate the administrative units which effect these two services. Those who are responsible for providing food should also be responsible for moving it. The administrative units of the combined services of Transport and Supply are provided by the Army Service Corps, as shown in detail in the next section of this chapter. The Officers of this Corps are trained both for Transport and Supply duties. Their identical training and their organization together in one unit tends to produce co-operation in both services of Transport and Supply, and should minimize any chance of failure in war. The fact that all officers are interchangeable between these services also gives an elasticity to the system which is wanting when they are separate.
The Transport with the Units in the field is called Regimental Transport, in distinction from the Transport on the Lines of Communication, and consists of two categories:
(a) Transport of Fighting Units, including all Head-Quarters. This Transport is divided into First Line, and Second Line, Transport.
(b) Transport of Administrative Units—i.e. Ambulances, Supply Columns, and Supply Parks.
(a) First Line Transport forms an integral part of each fighting unit; the unit provides its own drivers and superintendence for its transport, which accompanies it at all times. The First Line Transport carries on wheels (or by pack) all that the unit requires for fighting—namely: guns, ammunition, entrenching tools—besides signalling, medical, veterinary, and other technical equipment.
Second Line Transport for all units is provided by the A.S.C., to carry the baggage, supplies, stores, and water which the unit requires to have with it when at rest. This transport is not required for fighting, and, when near the enemy, does not accompany its unit, but is all massed in rear of the fighting troops, but able to rejoin its various units in a few hours. The water carts alone may at times accompany the troops.
The stores carried include cooking utensils and butchers’ implements, artificers’ tools and material, office books and stationery; also, when specially required, blankets, tents, and fuel.
The supplies carried are indicated later in the description of the Supply Service which follows.
Transport for each Head-Quarters is all furnished by the Army Service Corps (A.S.C.).
(b) Transport of Administrative Units.—This is provided also by the A.S.C., and is described in the two following sections of this chapter, under the heading of the Supply Services and Medical Services.
The Transport on the Lines of Communication is controlled by the representative of the Director of Transport at Head-Quarters of the L. of C. It is carried on by Auxiliary Transport Companies, composed generally of non-military wagons, teams, and drivers, under the control of a small personnel of Army Service Corps. Mechanical Road Transport is likely in the future to be very largely employed on the L. of C. to work from railhead to the Units of field troops at the front.
In the British Army organization the details of the L. of C. Transport are as follows:
Twelve Auxiliary Transport Companies of 50 wagons, and six of 100 wagons, are formed. Each has an A.S.C. personnel of 3 Officers and 54 other ranks, with 10 riding horses. Every 50 wagons require 115 drivers and 210 horses, including 5 per cent. spare.
In case the local transport is formed of carts, the Auxiliary Company has an A.S.C. personnel of 1 Officer and 28 other ranks. Every 50 carts require 58 drivers, and 105 horses, including spare.
There are four units called Transport Depôts, each with a personnel of 3 Officers and 93 other ranks, organized in four Sections; each Section can form a small depôt on the L. of C., providing a reserve of horsed transport to replace wastage, and a repairing section for mechanical transport.
Transport for local work at the Base, and at posts on the L. of C., is improvised from civil sources, as it requires no great degree of mobility, and, working locally, and at a distance from the enemy, can be easily kept under supervision.
Experience teaches that supplies of food can only be furnished to troops during war in three ways:
(a) The men may be fed by the occupants of the houses where they are billeted.
This is only possible in towns, or in the country when the troops are much scattered, and when the Army is moving continuously, and the troops do not remain more than a day or two in one place.
(b) Food may be obtained from the country by purchase, or by requisition, which must always be carried out in a regular manner by responsible officers, or waste, confusion, and individual looting and terrorism will ensue.
(c) Food may be drawn from the L. of C. and issued by the Supply Service.
A combination of all three methods is generally practicable. The food available in the country should be used as far as possible, so as to avoid straining the resources of the Supply Service, and the capacity of the Lines of Communication.
Under the average conditions of country and climate for which the British normal regulations are designed, it may be expected that fuel, water, hay and straw, and cattle, will be obtainable in the country. Thus only bread and groceries, and corn for horses, have normally to be conveyed to the troops by the Supply Service.
Both purchase and requisition demand good organization, and trained supply officers accompanying the troops. The Supply Service is organized in the way about to be described, partly so as to provide officers, men, and wagons to collect supplies in the country and bring them to the troops, partly to transport from the Base what is required to supplement the amount collected.
The Supplies for an Army in the Field may be considered under two heads:
(I.) Mobile Supplies with the Troops.
(II.) Supply Depôts on the Lines of Communication.
The former are divided into three lines of supply:
(a) Regimental Supplies, controlled by the Unit itself.
(b) Column Supplies.
(c) Park Supplies.
The last two are controlled by the Supply Service.
(a) Regimental Supplies are those carried in Regimental wagons, in addition to what is in the personal charge of each man—namely, the remains of the current day’s ration issued overnight, and an emergency ration of preserved food. In the wagon with each unit are one day’s ration of food and of oats for the unit, for issue that evening, besides a second grocery ration and some compressed forage.
(b) Column Supplies are carried in Supply Columns, of which one is allotted to each Division and Mounted Brigade, and to the Army Troops. Each Column carries one day’s ration and forage for its Division, and one emergency ration. One day’s meat on the hoof will usually be driven with the Column.
The Supply Column replenishes the regimental supplies daily, and is kept filled up by collecting local supplies, or by drawing on the L. of C. depôts, or, as a last resource, on the Park Supplies.
(c) Park Supplies are carried in the Transport and Supply Park allotted to each Division, which usually marches a day’s march in rear of the troops. It carries three days’ rations for its Division, and is divided into three sections, i.e. 1 per Brigade. There is in the Field Park also a Bakery Detachment, capable of baking for 22,500 men; this is, as a rule, stationed at the Advanced Base. One to three days’ meat supply on the hoof will generally be driven with the Park. The Parks are kept filled up by a more extended exploitation of local resources than the Supply Columns can effect, and obtain the balance required from the L. of C. depôts.
This organization thus supplies the following rations per man, and corn per horse, with the troops in the field, apart from any Supplies which may be moving up along the L. of C.
Meat: 1¼ lb. fresh, or 1 lb. preserved.
Bread: 1¼ lb., or 1 lb. biscuit.
Groceries: Tea, sugar, salt, pepper.
Jam.
Lime-juice and rum, when authorized.
Vegetables: 8 oz. fresh, or 2 oz. dried, or 4 oz. preserved fruit.
The weight of a ration may be taken at 3 lb. net or 4 lb. gross, and that of the emergency ration is 6½ lb. net or 9½ lb. gross.
The preserved meat and biscuit are carried in 80-lb. wood cases, containing 60 rations of meat and 50 of biscuit. The cases furnish kindling for fires.
12 lb. corn per horse, or 15 lb. for heavy draught horses.
On the man or horse: 1 day’s ration and 1 day’s oats, less amount consumed overnight; 1 emergency ration.
In Regimental Transport: 1 day’s ration, less vegetables, and 1 day’s groceries extra; 1 day’s corn.
In T. and S. Columns: 1 day’s rations and corn.
In T. and S. Park: 3 days’ rations and corn.
Compressed forage: 1 bale (82 lb.) in each wagon in the Force.
Total carried with the Force per man and horse:
6 days’ meat and biscuit and corn, less that consumed overnight;
6 days’ groceries;
5 days’ jam, lime-juice, and rum;
4 days’ vegetables;
2 emergency rations;
or sufficient for from 7 to 8 days, without receiving supplies from the L. of C.
Advanced Supply Depôts, established at the Advanced Base, to replenish the Mobile Supplies with the Troops.
Intermediate Supply Depôts, formed at Railhead, and sometimes at other points on the Lines of Communication, as a reserve.
The Base Depôt.—This is the main source of supply for the Army. In it are accumulated ample reserves of all supplies, procured partly from home, partly by contract from abroad, but as far as possible by direct purchase in the theatre of war.
The Supply Columns and Supply Parks are formed by Companies of the “Army Service Corps,” which comprise both Transport and Supply personnel, with the necessary horses, wagons, and stores.
The Company of Army Service Corps varies in strength according to its functions, but comprises on an average the following:
For Transport duties: 3 Officers, 63 other ranks, 108 horses, 25 wagons.
For Supply duties: 1 Officer, 13 other ranks.
The various Supply Columns are formed of a number of A.S.C. Companies on the following scale: one Company per Brigade, and one per Head-Quarters; so that the Supply Column of a Division comprises 4 A.S.C. Companies, that of the Cavalry Division 5 A.S.C. Companies, and that of a Mounted Brigade 1 A.S.C. Company. The Army Troops Supply Column is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.
The Divisional Supply Park is formed in 3 sections, or one per Brigade, each being formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.
The Field Bakery Detachment is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company, and is divided into 8 sections, each of which can erect and work 10 ovens.
The Supply Depôts on the Lines of Communication have a personnel provided from 40 Depôt Units of Supply and 8 Bakery Sections; one unit and one section are calculated to suffice for a depôt to feed 4,000 men and 1,000 animals. Their personnel comprises clerks, issuers, butchers, and bakers. Civil labour and transport will be obtained to supplement the military personnel, as required.
The Medical Service is of immense importance to the operations. No General can afford to neglect his sick and wounded. He can hardly fight, if he knows he cannot attend to them on the battlefield, and remove them afterwards to hospitals in rear. There must be at the front sufficient surgeons, as well as medical appliances and stores, to cope with this work. The transport of the sick to the rear must be carried out without delay or confusion, and on the Lines of Communication, and at the Base, there must be properly equipped hospitals to receive the sick and wounded.
The method of dealing with casualties in action is as follows:
In the front, with the fighting men, are the regimental surgeons and the stretcher bearers of the Infantry, for work on the battlefield. Behind the fighting line are stretcher bearers and ambulance wagons of the Field Ambulance, collecting the wounded, and taking them to the dressing stations. In rear are the Clearing Hospitals, into which the sick and wounded are collected, and whence they are despatched in Ambulance Trains along the railway to Stationary Hospitals on the Lines of Communication, or to the Base Hospitals. The invalids are then removed, either to convalescent depôts on the L. of C., or by hospital ship to the home country, where civil organization can be depended on to help the Military Hospitals to deal with them.
The Medical Services are manned and administered by the “Royal Army Medical Corps.” Their transport is provided by the Army Service Corps. The organization comprises the following:
1. Medical Establishments with Units.
2. Field Ambulances with Subordinate Commands.
Six Clearing Hospitals, at Advanced Base.
Six Ambulance Railway Trains, each available for 100 patients lying down.
Twelve Stationary Hospitals of 200 beds each, on the Lines of Communication.
Twelve General Hospitals of 520 beds each, at the Base.
Convalescent Depôts, as required.
Six Hospital Ships, each to carry 220 patients.
Three Base Depôts, and three Advanced Base Depôts, containing a reserve of Medical Stores.
It will be observed that for a Division and a Brigade of Mounted Troops there are provided 1 Clearing Hospital, 1 Ambulance Train, 2 Stationary and 2 General Hospitals, and 1 Hospital Ship.
1. Each Unit has attached to it a Medical Officer, and itself supplies two trained Orderlies, and a cart (or pack horse for mounted troops), to carry medical equipment. There are also two trained stretcher bearers from the ranks of each Infantry Company (or four men from each Squadron), trained in “first-aid” duties.
2. Field Ambulances are allotted to each Division, and Cavalry Field Ambulances to the Cavalry Division, and to the Mounted Brigades. They are provided on the scale of one for each Brigade. There are also two Field Ambulances for the “Army Troops.”
Each description of Ambulance comprises a Bearer Division of stretcher bearers, and a Tent Division, which forms a “Dressing Station”—that is, a small mobile field hospital in which only absolutely necessary dressing is applied.
The Field Ambulance is divided into three equal Sections, and the Cavalry Field Ambulance into two Sections. Each Section has 3 ambulance wagons, a water cart, and 2 wagons and a cart for carrying its stores, baggage, and supplies. Each Section is thus self-contained, and can be sent off without reorganization, whenever required to accompany a detached portion of the Brigade.
The strength of a Field Ambulance is:
10 Officers, 120 stretcher bearers, 60 hospital staff, all belonging to the Royal Army Medical Corps (R.A.M.C.), and 60 men and 90 horses provided by the A.S.C. for its transport, which consists of 10 four-horsed ambulance wagons, 3 water carts, and 9 other wagons for medical supplies, baggage, and stores. Its Bearer Division provides 18 squads of stretcher bearers, each squad being of 6 men; and its Tent Division can accommodate 150 patients.
A Cavalry Field Ambulance comprises:
6 Officers, 38 stretcher bearers, 30 hospital staff, of the R.A.M.C., and 44 men and 70 horses of the A.S.C. It has 4 two-horsed, and 6 four-horsed, ambulance wagons, 2 water carts, 4 other wagons. Its Tent Division can accommodate 50 patients.
The establishment of a Clearing, or a Stationary, Hospital to accommodate 200 patients is 8 Officers and 80 other ranks; that of a General Hospital, 21 Officers and 140 other ranks. Nursing sisters are allotted to the non-mobile Hospitals on the L. of C. at the rate of 17 to 200 patients, but not to the mobile Clearing Hospitals.
Each Ambulance Train is provided with 2 Officers, 18 other ranks, and 2 sisters, and can carry 100 patients.
The Sanitary Service is one of the Medical Services. Its object is to preserve the health of the troops, by looking after purity of water supply, and sanitation of camps.
The personnel of the Sanitary Service is provided by the R.A.M.C. It comprises a Sanitary Squad with each Unit, and on the Lines of Communication a Sanitary Section at the Base and Railhead, a Squad at each Post or Rest Camp, and 2 Squads at each Advanced Base.
The Section comprises an Officer and 25 men of the R.A.M.C., the Squad a Sergeant and 5 men.
In addition, a N.C.O. of each Cavalry Regiment, or Artillery Brigade, or Battalion, and 1 or 2 men of each Squadron, Battery, or Company, are trained for carrying out Sanitary duties with their Unit.