[358] 1 fanegada = 41,472 square varas (yards), and 1 acre = 4840 varas. In Arequipa the square measure is called a topu. 1 topu = 5000 square varas.

[359] Mr. Gerard Garland is about to commence a cotton plantation in the littoral province of Payta; and, if his project succeeds, it will doubtless induce others to follow his example.—Cotton Supply Reporter, March 15th, 1862.

[360] The use of guano as a manure was well known to the ancient Peruvians long before the Spanish conquest. Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian of the Incas, thus describes the use made by them of the deposits of guano on the coast of Peru:—

"On the shores of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is more than 200 leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of sea-birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would also seem incredible. From afar the heaps of manure appear like the peaks of some snowy mountain range. In the time of the kings, who were Incas, such care was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was not lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither was it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the islands or elsewhere, also on pain of death. Each island was, by order of the Incas, set apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly divided, each village receiving a due portion. Now in these times it is wasted after a different fashion. There is much fertility in this bird-manure."—II. lib. v. cap. iii. p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.)

Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was brought from Iquique and other ports along the coast, and landed at Arica and Ylo, for the aji-pepper and other crops.—Frezier's South Sea, p. 152. (London, 1717.)

[361] Informes sobre la existencia de Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, por la comision nombrada por el Gobierno Peruano, 1854. A small pamphlet, with plans.

[362] Bollaert's Account of Tarapaca.

[363] In 1858 there were 52 ships loading at the Kooria Mooria islands, off the coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano is found coating nearly the whole of the island (about 500,000 tons), white and polished, so as to be very slippery, which is very different from the guano of Peru. In May, 1857, this guano from Jibleea island was analyzed at Bombay by Dr. Giraud, with the following result:—

Thus the quantity of phosphate of lime is very small, and it appears that the rains have washed it down, and that it has formed a stalactitic deposit on the surface of the rock beneath the guano. A cargo of this deposit was shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8l. a ton.

The composition of Peruvian guano is as follows:—

Of Ichaboe guano:—

[364] The Peruvian Government contracted three loans in London between 1822 and 1825, amounting to 1,816,000l., bearing interest at 6 per cent.

No interest was paid from 1825 to 1849, when the sales of guano had greatly increased the resources of Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an agreement with the bondholders to issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per annum, the rate to increase ½ per cent. annually up to 6 per cent. Arrears of interest, about 2,615,000l., were to be capitalized, and Deferred Bonds to be issued to represent 75 per cent. of these arrears, and to bear interest at 1 per cent. per annum, increasing ½ per cent. annually up to 3 per cent.

In 1852 the Congress authorised General Mendiburu to effect a loan in London for 2,600,000l. to redeem the remainder of the 6 per cent. loan, and to refund other home and Chile debts.

The annual interest and sinking fund amount, respectively, to 267,000l. and 82,000l.; the payment of which is secured on the profits of guano sold in Great Britain.

There is also a French loan of 800,000l. secured on the profits of guano sold in France.

The whole foreign debt of Peru amounted to 4,491,042l. in 1857; and the domestic debt to 4,835,708l. The foreign debt is annually reduced by means of a sinking fund.

[365] Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru. (Lima, 1859.)

[366] After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets lodged.

[367] Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of red bark.

[368] There is no ascertained law by which many of the species of the chinchona genus are thus limited to narrow zones as regards latitude. Mr. Spruce mentions that on the lower regions of the Andes of Pasto and Popayan, in New Granada, there are the conditions of climate and altitude requisite for the growth of C. succirubra, but it has not been found there.

[369] This is not the same as the pata de gallinazo of Huanuco, which has been named by Mr. Howard C. Peruviana.

[370] Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; one began to germinate on the fourth day, and at the end of a fortnight four seeds had pushed their radicles. In three weeks one had the seed-leaves completely developed; and on the twenty-eighth day after sowing, the last of the eight pushed its radicle. Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, which had remained nine months in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, which clearly shows that well-ripened and properly-dried seeds do not lose their vitality for a much longer period than their excessive delicacy would lead one to suspect.

[371] 1. Notes of a visit to the Chinchona Forests, by R. Spruce, Esq., printed by the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their Proceedings.

2. Mr. Spruce's Report to the Under Secretary of State for India, Oct. 12, 1860.

3. Report of the Expedition to procure Plants and Seeds of the Chinchona succirubra, by R. Spruce, Esq., Sept. 22, 1861.

[372] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated July 9, 1861.

[373] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated Dec. 13, 1860.

[374] Smyth's Journey from Lima to Para, p. 63.

[375] Herndon's Valley of the Amazon, p. 126.

[376] Herndon's Valley of the Amazon, p. 136.

[377] Smyth, p. 115; who says that, according to a register which had been kept there, it rains at Casapi on more than half the days of the year.

"From May to November the sun shines very powerfully in the valley of Chinchao, and consequently the soil, when it is cleared of wood, becomes so parched that its surface opens in chinks, but underneath it always preserves humidity, and therefore needs no irrigation. From November to May it rains much, sometimes six or seven days without intermission."—Dr. A. Smith's Peru as It Is, ii. p. 57.

[378] Of the identity of the species collected by Mr. Pritchett there is no doubt. He brought home specimens from the trees whence the seeds were obtained, which have been examined by Mr. Howard, and proved to belong to C. nitida, C. micrantha, and C. Peruviana. The barks also have been found to contain a satisfactory percentage of alkaloids. Some further particulars respecting these species have already been given in chap. ii. p. 30-35.

[379] Pavon gives its height at from 18 to 24 feet, and 8 to 9 inches in diameter.

[380] They yield the crown bark of commerce.

[381] Seemann's Voyage of H. M. S. Herald, i. p. 177. For some further particulars respecting the chinchona region of Loxa, see chap. ii. p. 21-25.

[382] Nueva Quinologia de Pavon. C. Chahuarguera and C. crispa.

[383] Mr. Cross transmitted the following dried specimens of the parts of chinchona-trees from Loxa:—

1. Very characteristic specimens of the bark, leaves, flowers, and capsules of C. Condaminea (C. Chahuarguera, Pavon). This kind yields the rusty crown bark of commerce.

2. Bark, leaves, and flowers of C. crispa, Tafalla, a kind which is included in the C. Condaminea, H. and B. It yields the quina fina de Loxa, or cascarilla crespilla.

3. Bark and leaves of C. Lucumæfolia of Pavon, from Zamora. This is the cascarilla de hoja de lucma of the natives. Mr. Cross made no attempt to collect the seeds, as this species is comparatively worthless.

[384] My collection of dried specimens is deposited in the museum and herbarium at Kew. It consists of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of C. Calisaya; leaves and flowers of C. micrantha; leaves and fruit of C. Caravayensis; fruit of Pimentelia glomerata; and bark from the branches of almost every species of chinchona and allied genera in the Caravayan forests.

Mr. Spruce's collection of all the parts of C. succirubra is in the herbarium at Kew.

Mr. Pritchett's collection of leaves, fruit, and bark of C. nitida, C. micrantha, C. Peruviana, and C. obovata, is in the possession of Mr. Howard.

Mr. Cross's dried specimens of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of C. Condaminea (C. Chahuarguera of Pavon), bark, leaves, and flowers of C. crispa of Tafalla, and bark and leaves of C. Lucumæfolia, are partly in my possession, partly in that of Mr. Howard, and partly in that of Mr. Veitch.

[385] Six cases of chinchona-plants from this depôt were despatched to Ceylon by the mail of March 4, 1862.

[386] See Fortune's Tea Districts, chap. xxi. p. 358-9.

[387] Mr. Cross says that Wardian cases, as they are at present constructed, are notoriously unfit for the growth of plants of any description. He adds that the plants must be healthy root and top before they are deposited in the cases. They ought to be exposed for at least a month to the full action of the sun and atmosphere, so that the juices, stems, and leaves may be fully developed and matured. Plants taken out of hothouses, or from dense forests, are not in a fit state to be sent away immediately in Wardian cases. They are then "blanched," and are easily affected by adverse influences, such as excess of moisture or drought.

[388] In October, 1861, the Schinus molle plants were 3 feet high; and the chirimoyas 15 inches. Plants of both have been sent to the gardens at Bangalore.

[389] Seemann's Voyage of the Herald, i. p. 171.

[390] These 11 classes are:—1. The Kirüm Nairs, who are agriculturists, clerks, and accountants, and do the cooking on all public occasions, a sure sign of transcendent rank. 2. The Sudra Nairs. 3. The Charnadus. 4. The Villiums, who are palkee-bearers to Namburis and Rajahs. 5. The Wattacotas, or oil-makers. 6. The Atticourchis, or cultivators. 7. The Wallacutras, or barbers. 8. The Wallateratas, or washermen. 9. The Tunars, or tailors. 10. The Andoras, or pot-makers. 11. The Taragons, or weavers, who are very low in the scale, for even a potter must purify himself if he chances to touch a weaver.—Buchanan, ii. p. 408.

[391] Buchanan.

[392] Temulporum and Palghaut.

[393] They range from 12 to 60 reas, or 6 pies to 2 annas 5 pies per tree.

[394] The value of the exported nuts, kernels, oil, and coir of the cocoanuts in 1859, was 157,995l.

[395] Drury's Useful Plants of India.

[396] The best soil for ginger-cultivation is red earth free from gravel. At the commencement of the monsoon beds of 10 or 12 feet by 3 or 4 are formed, in which holes are dug a foot apart, which are filled with manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug out, chipped into suitable sizes for planting (1½ to 2 inches long), and buried in the holes. The bed is then covered with a thick layer of green leaves, which serve as manure, while they keep the beds from too much dampness. Rain is requisite, but the beds must be kept from inundation, and drains are therefore cut between them. The roots or rhizomes, when old, are scalded, scraped, and dried, and thus form the white ginger of commerce.—Drury's Useful Plants of India.

[397] The tallipot or fan-palm (Corypha umbraculifera) has a stem 60 or 70 feet high, crowned with enormous fan-shaped leaves, with 40 or 50 pairs of segments. These fronds, when dried, are very strong, and are used for hats and umbrellas. The petiole is seven feet long, and the blade six feet long and thirteen feet broad.

[398] The sumach-tree (Cæsalpinia coriaria) was introduced into India from America, by Dr. Wallich, in 1842. The pods are much used for tanning purposes.

[399] Nil, blue, and giri, a mountain; from the blue Justitias which cover many of the hill-slopes.

[400] Report of Captain J. Ouchterlony, Superintendent of the Neilgherry Survey in 1848.

[401] Ferdosi.

[402] Dr. Wight says that this plant might be collected in vast quantities with little trouble or expense, and yields an excellent red dye.

[403] This nettle is frequent all over the higher ranges of the Neilgherries. The bark yields a fine strong fibre, which the natives obtain by first boiling the whole plant, to deprive it of its virulently-stinging properties, and then peeling the stalks. The textile material thus obtained is of great delicacy and strength.—Wight's Spicelegium Neilgherense. The fibre of the Neilgherry nettle is worth 200l. a ton in England, and its cultivation is likely to be a remunerative speculation.

[404] Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, from the rough Notes of a German Missionary. (Madras, 1856.)

[405] Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri Mountains, by the Rev. F. Metz, of the German Evangelical Mission. (Madras, 1857.)

[406] Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills, by Captain H. Congreve, 1847. Also, Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar. The German missionaries believe that these cairns were the work of the Kurumbers, another wild hill tribe.

[407] Todars pay two taxes to Government in return, on female buffaloes and on grazing land, both small in amount.

[408] Raggee, however, is the least nourishing of all the cereals, although it forms the chief part of the diet of the poorer classes in Mysore and on the Neilgherries. In good seasons it yields 120-fold, but it is very poor fare.

[409] In 1807 Buchanan mentioned the Badagas of the Neilgherries, as gatherers of honey and wax in the hills south of Wynaad.—ii. p. 246 and p. 273.

[410] Literally "one stone village."

[411] The great Tamil scholar.

[412] Hooli, a tiger in the Badaga language; and cul, a rock or stone in Tamil and Canarese. Pili is a tiger in Tamil.

[413] Mr. Fowler, in his evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons, gave 2500 to 4000 feet as the most favourable elevation for the growth of coffee.

[414] There are 11,386 acres of land under coffee cultivation in Wynaad, 7358 owned by Europeans, and 4028 by natives: of these 7224 are liable to assessment, that is, the coffee-trees are in bearing.

[415] Besides a jemmi fee on Government land, of eight annas an acre.

[416] Cleghorn's Forests and Gardens of Southern India, p. 16.

[417] Several species of Chinchonæ flourish at altitudes from 8000 to over 10,000 feet above the sea, and within the region of frequent frosts.

[418] Karsten.

[419] Smyth's Journey from Lima to Para, p. 115.

[420] Dr. A. Smith's Peru as It Is, ii. p. 57.

[421] Mr. Spruce's Report, p. 27.

[422] Called Cinchona excelsa by Dr. Roxburgh, but excluded from the list of Chinchonæ by Dr. Wallich, who gave the plant its present name.

[423] In the Mahabharata the five Pandus, who contended with the 100 Kurus or vices, were—Yudisthira, the personification of modesty; and his brothers Arjuna, or courage; Bhima, or strength; Nakal, or beauty; and Sahadeva, or harmony. The conversation between Arjuna and the incarnate deity Krishna, in the Bhagavat Gita, an episode in the Mahabharata, is perhaps the finest passage in the whole range of Sanscrit literature.

[424] Cæsalpinia sappan, a handsome tree, with curiously-shaped pods. It yields a valuable dye.

[425] Called jowaree, in Bengalee; jonna, in Telugu; yawanul, in Sanscrit; and doora, in Egypt.

[426] Dolichos lablab, a kind of pulse much eaten by the poor people.

[427] Cotton (Gossypium Indicum) is called parati, in Tamil; putti, in Telugu; and kurpas, in Sanscrit.

[428] The former of these grains has already been mentioned. The latter is Panicum spicatum, or spiked millet. It is called bajree, in Guzeratee; and kunghoo, in Sanscrit; and is made into cakes and porridge.

[429] "The black cotton soil seems to have arisen from the decomposition of basalt and trap. When dry it is dark-coloured, and glistens from the presence of nearly pure grains of silica. It possesses extraordinary attraction for water, and forms with it a most tenacious mud."—Dr. Forbes Watson.

[430] "The district of Coimbatore lies opposite the great gap in the Peninsular chain between the southern slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, and the northern face of those of Travancor. Across this depression the S.W. monsoon has almost a free passage to the eastward; but the great elevation of the mountains on both sides, and the absence of any considerable hills in the district, cause the monsoon wind to pass over without depositing much of its moisture; and, though the climate is humid, the rainfall is very trifling. During the N.E. monsoon the hills of Salem intercept the moisture."—Hooker's Flora Indica, i. p. 132.

[431] Lindley's Theory and Practice of Horticulture, p. 487.

[432] "This is an assurance which no private tenant in any country, not even in England, has obtained."—East India Company's Memorandum, 1858, p. 17.

[433] Koda, a shade or umbrella; and karnal, a jungle.

[434] Literally "Fruit-hills."

[435] Yet I missed the Berberis Mahonia, which in the Neilgherries is not found beyond the limits of the S.W. monsoon.

[436] For short accounts of the Pulney hills, see—

1. Memoir of the Varagherry Hills, by Capt. B. S. Ward, Madras Journal of Literature and Science, Oct. 1837, vol. vi. p. 280.

2. Observations on the Pulney Mountains, by Dr. Wight, Madras Journal, v. p. 280.

3. Report on the Pulneys, by Lieut. R. H. Beddome, Madras Journal, 1857.

4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's Official Tour in the South of India. He says, "It is an important fact that, as regards much the largest portion of this tract, there is no claim to the soil which can interfere with the establishment of the most absolute freehold."

[437] For a very interesting account of the Anamallay hills, see Forests and Gardens of South India, p. 289-302, by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency.

[438] Tamil is spoken throughout the Carnatic, in the southern part of Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, by about 10,000,000 souls. Telugu, the first of the Dravidian languages in euphonious sweetness, is spoken in the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of the Nizam's territory, and part of Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and Mysore; and Malayalam in Malabar. The whole Dravidian race numbers 30,000,000 souls. The Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam languages have each a system of written characters peculiar to itself: the Canarese letters are borrowed from the Telugu.

[439] Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar. Preface, p. v.

[440] Lectures on the Science of Language, p. 341.

[441] Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas which the human mind is capable of forming. See a paper read before the Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, On the numerals as evidence of the progress of civilization, by Mr. Crawford.

[442] Caldwell, p. 2.

[443] Kolki of the Periplus; perhaps Kilkhar, on the Coromandel coast, opposite Rameswaram.

[444] In Sanscrit.

[445] In 1802 a pot of Roman coins was dug up near Dharaparum, in Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, with Cæsarea marked on them, the place where they were struck. Buchanan's Travels, ii. p. 318.

One coin, a Roman aureus, has been found in a cairn on the Neilgherry hills.—Captain H. Congreve's Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills.

[446] The author of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda (Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and Comari (Cape Comorin), as under King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan Kings of Madura lost Malabar between the time of the author of the Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because the latter does not allude to Pandion until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira is the modern Coimbatore, and the capital of the Chira state was at Caroor. The state of Chola is the modern Tanjore. The word Pandya is probably of Sanscrit origin, but the masculine termination of on is Tamil.

[447] "In Tamil few Brahmins have written anything worthy of preservation: but the language has been cultivated and developed with immense zeal and success by native Sudras."—Caldwell, p. 33. Tamil literature, now extant, dates from the eighth or ninth century: p. 68.

[448] Dr. Ainslie, in his Materia Medica, gives a list of twenty works by Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, some of them translated from Sanscrit.

[449] For a list of kings of Madura, of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, see a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, by H. H. Wilson; from MS. collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie.

[450] Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas in 1675. The last Naik sovereign of Madura was installed as a tributary of the Nawab of the Carnatic.

[451] Namely the Michelia Champacca, a golden-coloured flower with a strong aromatic smell, also dedicated to Krishna; the mango-flower-called amra; the Pavonia odorata with a sweet flower, called bulla; the Strychnos potatorum; and the Mesua ferea, a guttiferous plant, with a flower white outside, and yellow inside the tube, with a smell like sweet-briar.

[452] While on the subject of sacred Hindu plants, I may also mention the soma juice, so often alluded to in the Vedas, which comes from a leafless asclepiad (Sarcostemma viminale) with white flowers in terminal umbels, which appear during the rains, in the Deccan: the holy kusa-grass (Poa cynosuroides), made into ropes in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, the banyan, the neem (Melia Azadyraclita): the Cratæva religiosa, specially sacred to Siva: the Nerium odorum, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the Cæsalpinia pulcherrima, sacred to Siva: the Guettarda speciosa, sacred to Siva and Vishnu: the Origanum marjoranum, a labiate plant sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the Caryophyllum inophyllum, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the Pandanus odoratissimus, sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, but offensive to Siva: the Artemisia astriaka, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the Ocimum sanctum or toolsu, a labiate plant with a white flower, specially sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and the Chrisanthemum Indicum, a yellow flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva.

[453] Mr. Caldwell considers that these lines do not allude to any of the avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but that they are borrowed, in some unexplained way, from Christianity.

[454] In Fergusson's Architecture, i. p. 105, the hall is represented with an arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's Views of Hindostan.

[455] There was a Portuguese Jesuit mission, with two Christian churches, established at Madura during the reign of Tirumalla Naik. It was founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and the missionaries wore the sacred thread, declaring themselves to be Brahmins from the West.

[456] The Brahmins of course are of mixed blood, through intercourse with Tamil women. Children are therefore Sudras, and are not Brahmins until they are invested with the sacred thread.

[457] From Parei, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals.

[458] Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar, Appendix, p. 491.