Our men had not long been settled at Château d'Oex when they were inspected by Colonel Hauser, who mentioned to me his surprise at finding an unusually high percentage in need of surgical treatment, the percentage being much higher than in the case of the French, Belgian, or German Interned. He appeared to be satisfied at the time with the adequacy of the medical and surgical arrangements at our disposal, but expressed some concern at a feeling, common to both officers and men, that their surgical treatment was being unduly delayed. He said that the same feeling had prevailed amongst the French and Belgians at an earlier date of the Internment, but that this was based upon a totally erroneous impression. Patients, in their anxiety for an early restoration to health and activity, often failed to realize the danger of premature operative work, and he had been forced to direct his surgeons to exercise due caution. Recrudescent purulent outbreaks had already occurred amongst the French, with fatal consequences, as the result of premature work, and he was determined that his surgeons should not in the future be led away by any signs of impatience on the part of the Interned. He begged me to believe that his officers were acting in the interests of each individual officer and man, and that if operations were deferred, there was good reason for the decision taken. He had evidently warned Major Mercanton, the "Chef de Région," of the necessity for caution in certain classes of surgical work, for, whilst accompanying the first train conveying the men from Montreux to Château d'Oex, I was present when a conversation on this subject took place between the latter and Captain de la Chaux, the D.M.O. of the camp. Major Mercanton warned his subordinates of the advisability of proceeding slowly in the first instance. Apart from the necessity of dealing with urgent cases as they might arise, he recommended a rest of at least a month, in order that the effect of good food and change of climate might be watched before any operative work was undertaken. He also dwelt at length on the danger of blood-poisoning due to the foci of bacteria. I felt at the time that whatever minor evils might result from excessive caution, the greater evil of premature surgery would, within the limits of human judgment, be avoided.
It was a matter of interest to me to learn from Colonel Hauser that, as in the case of the French and Belgian Interned, his officers were already being criticized as a result of this cautious attitude, and that the criticism amounted to a suspicion of neglect. This suspicion may have been aggravated to some extent by a feeling amongst certain of the officers that reasonable facilities were not being granted them for treatment by private Specialists. The regulations affecting this question gave the officer the right of consultation with, and treatment by, a Specialist, but with the proviso that the charges incurred should be debited to the Sanitary Department only, when the necessity for calling in the Specialist had been allowed by the responsible camp doctor. In the case of his non-approval, the charge had to be met from the private purse of the officer. The D.M.Os. took the point of view that, in the majority of cases, treatment could be as well conducted in the camp by the regular Medical Staff as by the Specialist, and as trustees for the proper expenditure of the funds placed at their disposal by our Government, they did not feel themselves justified in employing the Specialist in other than exceptional cases. The charges involved by this latter procedure would, of course, have proved heavier than in the former, and though they did not attach undue importance to the financial side of the question, they did not feel inclined to ignore it altogether. On the one hand, the medical officers complained of the capricious nature of the demands made by our officers for specialized treatment, when the ordinary camp treatment would have amply sufficed, and held the opinion that the latter had no regard whatever for the financial interests of our Government. On the other hand, our officers cast doubts on the quality of the professional skill available in the camp, and criticized the cheese-paring policy of the medical officers.
The one view was directly opposed to the other, and it looked as though it would be difficult to arrive at an understanding on the question. The conclusion which, after conversations with both sides, I personally came to was, that the camp doctors (I am only speaking of Château d'Oex, for the same difficulty was not experienced elsewhere) were disposed to adhere too closely to the letter of their instructions, and were not sufficiently flexible in their dealings with either officers or men. They were too inclined to treat our soldiers as they would their own Swiss compatriots; a great mistake, as, in doing so, they made no allowance for the weaknesses and suspicions of men who had been subjected to hardships of a trying nature during a period of long confinement, and whose nerves were vibrating and sensitive to a degree. Moreover, the mentalities of the Swiss and British soldier were very different, and to judge of one soldier by the other could only lead to error and misunderstanding.
I discussed this question with Colonel Hauser, who spoke to me on the subject with the utmost frankness. It was apparently all the more easy for him to do so, as he had already been through the same phase of doubt and dissatisfaction with the Interned of our Allies, and had succeeded in proving to their satisfaction that all was well with their medical treatment. He pointed out that the conditions under which our men were being treated were, when compared with those of the Swiss soldier, exceptionally favourable, and this I believe to have been the case. It was true, he said, that in respect of food, nursing, etc., no comparison could be drawn, as either the circumstances differed, or the system adopted varied in our respective countries in a greater or less degree, but we could not expect the Swiss Government to adapt itself to the idiosyncracies of the soldiers of any one nationality; we must be prepared to judge by results. He could only deplore the lack of confidence displayed towards his Staff at Château d'Oex, and thought that our officers were over critical.
I, in reply, stated that I was at a disadvantage in having no qualified British doctor to assist me, and suggested that a visit of inspection by a distinguished British surgeon would, in all probability, serve to allay suspicion on the part of the Interned, and bring about a better feeling between his Staff and our men. He met the suggestion with enthusiasm, and said that both he and his Staff would welcome such a visit. Any officer nominated by the War Office for the purpose would be warmly received, and be given every facility to make himself acquainted with the conditions which determine the care and treatment of our Interned, and the attitude of the Swiss Sanitary Service towards them. He would be more especially pleased to see a medical expert of international reputation, as his doctors would have much to gain from an expert of wide experience.
Thereupon, I lost no time in making the situation clear to the Authorities at home, and asked that a surgeon of standing should be sent to inspect and report on the medical treatment, and to advise me as to the sufficiency or otherwise of the care bestowed upon our officers and men. Some delay took place before the right man could be found, but at last Lieut.-Colonel Robert Jones, R.A.M.C. (now Sir Robert Jones), the distinguished inspector of Military Orthopædics in Great Britain, was nominated for the purpose by Sir Alfred Keogh, K.C.B., Director-General A.M.S., and arrived in Berne on December 22, 1916.
He commenced his inspection at once, and in due course visited the camps at Mürren, Château d'Oex, Leysin, and the hospitals affiliated to these camps at Interlaken, Berne, and Lucerne. Shortly before his arrival, a contingent of Ps. of W. had reached Switzerland from Germany, and he therefore had an opportunity in each of the camps of comparing the conditions of these newly-arrived men with those who had been in residence in Switzerland for some time, a matter, to my mind, of great importance, as Colonel Hauser had contended that the true test of the efficiency of his Sanitary Service could best be demonstrated by results, the methods by which those results were achieved being of secondary importance. In principle, I agreed with this view, and looked upon it as a very happy circumstance that the arrival of this contingent had coincided with that of Colonel Jones, who would be able to apply this test when making his examinations.
As regards the medicine and surgery practised in the camps, Colonel Jones found the doctors to be well-informed young practitioners, who had undergone a sound modern training. Assisting at an emergency operation, conducted by Captain Dr. Brüstlein, at Château d'Oex, he writes:
The technique was good, and the theatre staff compared quite favourably with many more ambitious theatres at home. This experience gave me confidence with regard to the conduct of emergency operations in this camp. Neither at Mürren nor at Leysin is there an operating theatre in the camp. This is as it should be, as at neither place is there a surgeon qualified for serious surgical emergencies. Should such emergencies arise, an operating surgeon would be telephoned for from Interlaken or from Montreux. The character of the cases is very similar to those which we find in the ordinary British Military Hospital….
I was much pleased to find that the Swiss doctors were conservative, and did not show an undue haste to operate. They were beginning to learn of the dangers of recrudescent purulent outbreaks in those instances where operations were performed too early. This delay, in one of the camps, has given rise to suspicion of neglect, a suspicion which I took pains to dissipate….
The treatment of the Swiss doctors was quite equal to that which we find in a well-conducted auxiliary hospital at home, and the facilities offered the men to consult specialists were even greater than we often find to be the case at home.
Our soldiers are very well situated in all the camps, from the point of view of access to specialists. Berne, Lucerne, Montreux, and Lausanne contain most distinguished surgeons—many of them of international reputation. Careful inquiry proved to my satisfaction that whenever really necessary a consultation was allowed. These consultations, as long as recommended by the Directing Medical Officer, were never charged to British officers or men. I questioned the medical officers as to the specialists recommended, and was satisfied they were well-known men. If officers desired to consult any special man other than the person recommended by the D.M.O. no objection is taken to it, and so long as the D.M.O. thinks the consultation necessary, no charge is made for it. Occasions sometimes arise when an officer visits a specialist without consulting the D.M.O. and in that case he pays his own expenses. It is always advisable that the officer should consult the D.M.O. before seeking the advice of the specialist, as it sometimes happens that the officer chooses a surgeon with a brilliant abdominal reputation, when he should have consulted a specialist versed in bones. I had a long talk with the officers on this subject, and explained to them that they were as well off in the matter of expert opinion as if they lived in London.
The nursing was mostly of a comparatively unskilled type. Women nurses were not encouraged, and the duties were performed by orderlies who had undergone instruction. The disadvantage of this was largely counteracted by the fact that the surgeons themselves dressed their cases.
There are too few masseurs. I spoke of this, and I learn that the shortage is to be remedied. The Swiss authorities are to start a School of Massage, which several of our men will attend. This may easily prove to be a vocation of advantage to them after the war.
I visited several of the hospitals where the more serious cases had been removed for operation. I found the surgeons keen and very interested in their patients, and the hospital accommodation quite good. The food was excellent, and I could hear no complaints. In these various hospitals every type of operative work is done, such as bone-grafting, tendon-transplantation, brain and nerve surgery, and complicated plastic operations. I had long conversations with the staffs, and am now well aware of their views and methods of procedure. They seemed thoughtful, conscientious and careful men, and I feel our wounded are safe in their hands.
I found the British officers wanted encouragement, and I trust I was able to cheer many of them by truthfully assuring them of their recovery after the war. I endeavoured to instil into them a spirit of confidence in the doctors with whom they had to deal. In certain more complicated cases I suggested that the final operation should be performed upon them on their return. I think I examined every officer.
In respect of the general condition of the men, Colonel Jones writes:—
The newly arrived seemed indifferently nourished, many of them dazed, and some apprehensive of those in authority. After a very short time, so I am informed, these conditions are overcome, and the men become cheerful and trustful. The condition of those who had been in camp in Switzerland for longer periods was very satisfactory. They looked well and felt happy, and I had opportunities of examining their charts, and noted that they soon began to fatten after arriving in camp. Indeed, they represented generally a well-conditioned body of men. Many spoke well of their treatment by the Swiss officials, and seemed to fraternize with the villagers, with whom they were in general accord.
The three camps (Mürren, Château d'Oex, and Leysin) are admirably chosen … and the residential establishments for the men comprise most of the well-known hotels of the district. It would be difficult to conceive of more appropriate or delightful surroundings for men who have returned from German prisons.
Summarizing his experience of the camps, Colonel Jones stated that:—
The sanitation and housing were excellent; the feeding good in quality and plentiful; the Swiss doctors in charge well trained and attentive, and quite competent; the specialists extremely good, and every reasonable facility afforded for consulting them; the General Hospitals for serious cases were staffed by competent and often distinguished surgeons.
This visit of Colonel Jones, and the satisfactory nature of the report, once and for all set my mind at rest as to the general efficiency of the service and the skill of the medical officers, and certainly had a tranquillizing effect on the majority of our own officers and men. The contrast between the condition of the recent arrivals and those who had been in residence for some time was most marked, and furnished a proof of the almost miraculous change effected by the climate, the freedom from anxiety, and the good work of the doctors. In every camp the two classes of men were paraded for inspection side by side, and the difference in their mental outlook and physical condition was of a marked nature.
Further confirmation of the activities of the Swiss doctors reached me about this time from another quarter. Having regard to the great mass of Ps. of W. arriving in Switzerland, the majority of whom had received insufficient treatment in Germany, the "Médecin d'Armée" found it necessary to call for an objective and uniform examination of all wounded men, with a view to obtaining detailed indications for the treatment of their wounds, and in September, 1916, Dr. Matti, a distinguished specialist of Berne, was charged with the duty of visiting the "regions," and of examining every case where surgical and orthopædic treatment was in question. In December this order was modified, the "regions" being divided into four zones, for each of which a Specialist was nominated. The result of these examinations was communicated to me in due course, supplementing, and, I am glad to say, confirming, the conclusions drawn, quite independently, by Colonel Jones.
The employment of the Interned became at an early date the object of much solicitude on the part of the Swiss Government and the Swiss public, and it was soon recognized that the best tonic for repairing the ravages caused by sickness, wounds, and a long captivity, was to be found in the restoration of the soldier to a state of activity approximating to the normal, by bringing him into touch with the ordinary conditions of civil life. For this purpose it was necessary to find work, study, or occupation for all those whose physical and mental conditions were still adapted for that purpose.
Instructions were issued by Colonel Hauser in April, 1916, by which the D.M.O.s. were made responsible for the occupation of the Interned in a manner appropriate to the state of their health, and it was laid down as a principle that the work assigned was no longer to be treated as voluntary, but was to be made obligatory. Any refusal to work was to be severely punished. Nothing was said as to the method of procuring such occupation or of its organization. These instructions, therefore, proved of little practical value, beyond focussing the attention of the responsible Swiss officers on the subject. It was soon realized that many of the wounded and sick had been utterly and permanently broken down by their sufferings, whilst others were quickly recovering their physical, moral, and intellectual stamina.
To meet these varying conditions, an order was published on July 8, 1916, with the approval of the Political Department, classifying the Interned into six categories:—
1. Those incapable of all work.
2. Those partially capable, and fit for employment in the residential establishments as postal orderlies, waiters, etc.
3. Those partially capable, and fit for a few hours' work in the camps and workshops.
4. Those capable of a full day's work, and employable as labourers or mechanics.
5. Young apprentices who, owing to invalidity, are forced to learn a new trade.
6. Students wishing to continue their studies at the universities or schools of Switzerland.
The employment of categories 2, 3, and 5 was deputed to the D.M.O.s; category 4 to special commissions set up in regional centres; category 6 to a University Committee. The "D.M.Os." were invited to place themselves in touch with a Society known as "Pro Captivis," with a view to the employment of men of category 3.
The "Pro Captivis" was originally founded at Berne at the commencement of 1915 by Monsieur Jean Bernouilli, as a complement to the International Committee of the Red Cross at Geneva, whose work under the direction of Monsieur Ador is so well known. Later, it occupied itself for a time as a "Bureau de Secours" for the despatch of parcels to German and Austrian Ps. of W. It then changed its complexion by becoming an exclusively Swiss neutral Society, under the direction of Mme. de Sprecher (wife of the Chief of the General Staff), who offered its assistance to the "Médecin d'Armée" for the organization of the work entailed by the washing and repairs of the linen of the Interned. This offer was accepted, and, in co-operation with Swiss women of all classes, an efficient service was created for the purpose. It then turned its attention to the employment of the Interned, and opened workshops at Brunnen for the making of shoes, and at Meiringen for tannery. It also organized classes for the instruction of apprentices. These enterprises received official support, and were subsidized by the Swiss Q.M.G. Department.
By the end of 1916, the "Pro Captivis" had in hand fifty workshops, of which thirty were in German, and twenty in French, Switzerland, giving occupation to about 1,140 men.
Other enterprises of a similar kind were created by private initiative. Colonel Luthard, of the French Red Cross, for instance, founded several ateliers at Leysin and elsewhere for the benefit of the French Interned. Some of them joined up with the "Pro Captivis," others retained their autonomy. A model institution of the latter class was that founded in August, 1916, at Vevey, and known as "T.I.M." (Travail Internés Militaires). It was installed in an unused building of Messrs. Peter Cailler and Kohler. Here toys, furniture, and fancy articles were manufactured. Commencing with ten workmen, work was finally found for fifty-seven.
All these workshops were organized on the same principle, with an interned officer or N.C.O. in charge. Raw materials were procured by the Managing Committees, the output in finished articles being disposed of in Switzerland by the Management for the benefit of their societies. The men were employed, as a rule, for four to five hours per diem, at an average remuneration of fr. 1 for the day's work.
In December, 1916, it was seen that the business of the "Pro Captivis" was being run at a loss, and it was decided to detach this work from the Society and transfer it to the Central Administration of the "Médecin d'Armée" at Berne. This reform was duly effected, the existing deficit being made good by the Q.M.G. Department, which was henceforth made responsible for the administration of the numerous existing "Pro Captivis" workshops, the services of Madame von Sprecher being still retained as Lady Director. The aforementioned organization was intended almost exclusively for the employment and instruction of categories 3 and 5.
Those coming under category 4 were not being neglected, and factories were set up in January, 1917, for the manufacture of goods intended for sale abroad. These factories were established under the patronage of the officers in charge of the Interned, under the title of national workshops ("ateliers nationaux"), those of the French being controlled by Count de Manneville, who occupied the same position towards his interned compatriots as I did towards the British. This enterprise more especially affected French and German Ps. of W., as they alone had their markets near at hand, and, consequently, were not faced with any special difficulty either as regards the import of raw materials, or the export of the manufactured product. The Political Department gave its consent to the creation of these so-called national workshops for category 4 men, on the understanding that a market for their output should be found abroad, in order that Swiss industry and Swiss workers should not suffer from competition.
In due course factories for German Interned were installed for:—
Other developments followed.
Some of the French workshops were financed and directed as matters of national concern, the French Red Cross taking a leading part in the matter; others were set up by French industrials as a business speculation, machinery and tools being imported from France. The manufacture of furniture and huts received special encouragement from the French Government, as these articles were required in large quantities for the restoration of the provinces occupied by the enemy in Northern France. Clogs and metal work also found a ready outlet, facilities for import into France being accorded by the French Government. The men employed in the factories were, as a rule, those who had been employed in similar work in France and Belgium in pre-war days.
I am indebted to Dr. Garnett, my technical adviser, for some details of the work done by the French, from which I extract the following:—
It has to be borne in mind that the British Army of August, 1914, consisted almost exclusively of professional soldiers, while the French Army consisted largely of tradesmen.
Wherever the French were located, nearly every available workshop, especially if provided with electric power, was secured by them, and turned to more or less profitable purposes. The most remarkable example was at Spiez, where the workshops used by the contractor for the electrification of the Lotschberg Railway had been equipped by a French firm. Fifty men were employed in two relays, working eight hours each, and they turned out 2,000 pairs of sabots daily, using about three tons of sawn birch timber every day. The sabots were sent at once to France. The men were paid 50 centimes an hour (about frs. 24 a week). I could not avoid the conclusion that the French employer was to some extent exploiting prisoners' labour. At the same time, it was much better that the men should be employed than that they should be idle.
At Champéry the French had leased a sawmill and a joiner's shop with machine tools, and were making huts for re-housing the people in the devastated regions of northeast France. This work was under the auspices of the French Red Cross. The huts were built in panels 1¼ metres square, and put together by bolts and nuts. For railway transport they packed solid. Associated with the hut building was the furniture manufacture, carried on in several of the French centres. The furniture was made in birch and pine, and, like the huts, packed solid. Another remarkable industry was the framing in birch wood of school slates for the French schools. The slates were quarried between Frutigen and Adelboden; they were cut to size at the quarries and finished at Adelboden.
At Adelboden the Belgians had a weaving shed, with hand looms capable of turning out linen 2 metres in width.
At Vevey a French Colonial officer, had established the "T.I.M." This appeared to be a purely commercial undertaking where unskilled labour made saleable goods, which comprised bags, wire rat-traps, wire for champagne corks, kitchen utensils, etc. In connection with the majority of this work it was hard to believe that the training would be of value to the men when they returned to France.
At Leysin the French had secured an unfinished hotel, and as there were no windows the men had the advantage of working almost in the open air. Excellent work was done in small cabinet work and French polishing. A modeller with four or five assistants made models of the Kaiser and Crown Prince in plaster, which were painted by a specialist. The demand was so great I could not purchase one. Another man with four or five assistants was making paper-knives from wire nails about 20 c.m. long and 1 c.m. in diameter. This industry was learned, I understand, from Russian prisoners in Germany. At Meiringen the French had a workshop for light leather work and another for rope slippers.
There was little about the work in general that could be regarded as systematically educational, though the assistants had the opportunity of learning as apprentices. With few exceptions, the educational element was entirely lacking.
Attention was also directed by our Allies to other fields of employment. On the initiative of the French Embassy and the Belgian Legation at Berne, an orchestra was formed at Montreux, and was assimilated from the point of view of administration and finance to the system of national workshops. This orchestra was composed of Interned professional musicians, and was placed under the leadership of Monsieur Marc de Ranse, a well-known French musician, who drifted into Switzerland as a P. of W. after a long period of captivity in Germany. British musicians were asked to join this orchestra, though few availed themselves of the privilege, as most of our bandsmen preferred service in the camp orchestras at Château d'Oex, Mürren, and Leysin. Monsieur de Ranse made many tours in the Cantons of Vaud, Geneva, and the Bernese Oberland, where his orchestra met with a well-merited success.
Arrangements were also made for the employment of category 4 (full-day workers) in the workshops, factories, and farms of the country, and for this purpose Labour Commissions were set up at Berne, Lausanne, Lucerne, and Zürich. These regional Commissions, on receipt of a demand by an employer for the services of an Interned, were called upon to satisfy themselves that—(1) The employer was in a position to carry out his engagements, and (2) The employment proposed was not detrimental to the interests of the Swiss workmen. If the investigation proved satisfactory, the demand was referred to a Central Labour Commission at Berne, where it was again examined, and, if approved, was transmitted through the "Médecin d'Armée" at Berne to the camp authorities, by whom it was dealt with. The system gave rise to vexatious delay, but in the end the employers' demand was, as a rule, satisfied. Men so employed were paid the same rates as Swiss labourers or artisans of the same class, and were obliged to provide their own board and lodging. During the period of their contract they ceased to receive the frs. 4-5 per diem allocated by the Swiss Government for the entertainment of Ps. of W. in Switzerland, an exception, however, being made for men working in the open air, such as labourers, masons, or wood-cutters, for whom such daily grant continued to be paid on Sundays and other non-working days.
It is of interest, in connection with the French, to record the fact that the Swiss Federal Department of the Interior was much pre-occupied with the question of the preservation of walnut-trees. As a means to that end, grafting (greffage) as practised in France, but the method of which was unknown to the Swiss, was considered of great importance. Instructors were accordingly recruited from amongst the French Interned, and in January, 1917, as many as twenty men were engaged in imparting their knowledge to Swiss gardeners in different parts of the country.
By December 31, 1916, out of a total of 28,081 Ps. of W., consisting of 1,879 British, 15,574 French, 1,893 Belgians, 8,504 Germans, and 231 Austrians, only 818 men of category 4 had found employment through the intermediary of the Labour Commissions, and even this limited number was distributed amongst as many as 741 different Swiss masters.
As regards general and technical education, schools ("écoles nationales") were formed under the auspices of the officers in charge of the Interned. I am writing now only of the French, Belgians, and Germans. With the French and Belgians, attention was directed to general education in elementary subjects, languages, literature, commerce and accounts, and to technical instruction in agriculture, aviculture, designing, and telegraphy.
The Germans appear to have interested themselves in languages, English and Spanish being specially favoured. Other subjects were shorthand, accounts, geography, and commerce, whilst technical instruction was also given in fruit and vegetable culture, forestry, chemistry, and mining. The aforesaid subjects cover a wide field, but only a limited number of students were able to avail themselves of the facilities offered.
Funds for the above purposes were provided, directly by the Governments concerned, and indirectly by private individuals and public societies.
To make provision for the needs of category 6, i.e. of officers and men wishing to continue their studies at the universities or schools of Switzerland, "L'Œuvre Universitaire Suisse" was founded in June, 1915, with a central office at Lausanne. This body assumed responsibility for the intellectual patronage of the Interned. In September, 1915, a decision was taken authorizing the Interned to follow university or college courses in the principal intellectual centres of the country, and local Committees of the "Œuvre" were formed for the purpose of assisting the students at the Universities of Bâle, Berne, Fribourg, Geneva, Lausanne, Neuchâtel, and Zürich.
A special sub-division of the Interned, too, comprising all these centres, was instituted under the general direction of Colonel George de Montmollin, of Neuchâtel, and at each centre a "Commandant de Place" was appointed for the organization, discipline, and lodging of the students. Commissions were also nominated in each region, who pronounced on the eligibility of the students for inscription at the universities.
In January, 1917, a total of 1,364 students had inscribed themselves on the rolls of the universities, of whom 13 were British, 195 Belgians, 749 French, and 407 Germans. For their administration and discipline, 16 Swiss officers and 18 N.C.Os. had been designated. "L'Œuvre Universitaire" arranged that these students should be exempt from all university charges, a gracious concession which caused some comment, as a distinction was thus drawn unfavourable to the Swiss student, who, in many cases, was financially less well endowed than his foreign comrade. The question of language was a stumbling-block to the generality of British officers and soldiers, and no amount of goodwill or zeal could compensate for a want of French, more particularly as this language was the medium used by the professors in the universities open to the British.
The facilities afforded by the Swiss to the French, Belgian, and German Interned, as explained in the foregoing chapter, could not, it will be readily understood, be made applicable in the same degree to the British Interned, who, unlike their Allies and enemies, were strangers in a foreign land, ignorant of the languages spoken by the people, and, further, apart in race and habits. There was, moreover, this essential difference: whereas the French and Germans were largely drawn from the industrial classes, and had received a training in civil life, our men, and especially those who first arrived in Switzerland, in May, 1916, were professional soldiers, enlisted young, and therefore unskilled, and without technical equipment. Very few could hope to find work in the factories of Switzerland, and those classified in category 4, as "capable of a full day's work," were to all intents and purposes eliminated in so far as the Swiss field of labour was concerned. Some sort of educational and technical instruction was, therefore, in my opinion (I return to this question later), essential, if these professional soldiers were to be fitted to take their place in civil life, sooner or later, on leaving the Army. Even with regard to the New Army men with technical experience, the language difficulty was a bar to their employment by the Swiss.
As a preliminary measure for immediate practical purposes, shops, such as bootmakers', carpenters', tailors', barbers', etc., were opened at Château d'Oex, but beyond giving employment and remuneration to a limited number of men with some slight experience in these trades, they served no ulterior purpose.
Very shortly after, however, training on a more pronounced scale came prominently into question with the arrival at Mürren of the second contingent from Germany in August, 1916. The officers and men of this contingent were in a better state of health than their comrades who had preceded them at Château d'Oex in May, 1916, and Lieut.-Colonel F. H. Neish, Gordon Highlanders (S.B.O. at Mürren), found himself supported by a capable staff of young officers, keenly anxious to get to work after their long period of inactivity in Germany. Colonel Neish, accordingly, at once turned his attention to the formation of schools, classes, workshops, etc., thus laying the foundation for a scheme of technical training which, with the financial support of the "B.L.R.C.O.," and, at a later period, the "B.R.C.S.," London, received a considerable and satisfactory development.
Elementary classes were started for Telegraphy, Electricity, Shorthand, Typewriting, and Motor Engineering. Bookbinding of a simple nature was taught at both camps in connection with the circulating libraries; and a few men gave their attention to wood-carving, taking advantage of the Swiss Schools of Art in the Bernese Oberland.
As regards the schools, it was soon found necessary to add to the staff of teachers, and army schoolmasters were, at my request, sent out from England to meet the increasing demand.
The most important of the classes, however, were those of motor engineering, opened by Lieut. C. E. Wallis, Loyal North Lancashires, at Mürren, and by Captain Reynolds at Rossinières (Château d'Oex), whence men were subsequently selected to attend a more advanced class established later by Lieut. Wallis at Vevey. Of this I shall have more to say later on.
In the spring of 1917 I was approached by Mrs. Cook Daniels and Miss Martin, who had opened a hand-made carpet factory at Gunten, on the Lake of Thoune, with the object of giving employment to French and Belgian Interned quartered at that place. They had made a success of the enterprise, and offered to give similar employment to forty or fifty disabled British soldiers. This number of men was accordingly gradually drafted to Gunten from Mürren, where they were continuously employed until their repatriation in December, 1918. The Gunten carpets obtained a high reputation in Switzerland, and found a ready sale in the country. The profits were distributed to the men in salaries varying from frs. 3 to 6 per diem, frs. 1·20 being paid for every 1,000 stitches. These ladies also opened at their own expense a Club House and Canteen, which became a social centre for the men of the whole district. Gunten always struck me as one of the happiest and best organized of the Allied communities in the Bernese Oberland, and reflected great credit on the two ladies who stood sponsors for its welfare.
With the above exception of the carpet workshop, all the classes and workshops at the camps were financed by the "B.L.R.C.O.," sums being advanced to the "S.B.Os." for the purpose. At Mürren the management was so successful, that Colonel Neish was able to refund, out of profits, the greater part of the advances made by the "B.L.R.C.O."
During this period of preliminary organization, the number of Interned was constantly increasing, owing to the arrival of fresh contingents, whilst the health of the men who had been in the country some months was showing signs of marked improvement, thus adding to the sum total of those for whom it was desirable to find work. For the reasons already given, any outlet in the factories or workshops in Switzerland being practically barred, the minds of our officers were turned to our own schools and workshops, as offering the most likely and useful field for the absorption of the surplus energies still available, and it was calculated that by developing these so as to provide training for another 350 men, the needs of the Interned would be fairly well met. Further development at the camps was out of the question, as every inch of roof space had already been utilized, and it was determined, therefore, to look elsewhere for the necessary accommodation. A step in this direction was taken by the formation by Lieut. Wallis of the advanced class of motor engineering at Vevey, on the Lake of Geneva.
So far, the financial arrangements involved had been commensurate with the funds at the disposal of the "B.L.R.C.O.," but as the developments contemplated went far beyond the resources of that Organization, it was realized that we should have to look farther afield to meet the increased cost of additional technical training.
In framing any scheme of advanced technical training, some knowledge of the probable demands of the home market for skilled labour under after-war conditions was essential, so that, in order to prevent any haphazard growth of the existing Institutes, I addressed myself in the autumn of 1916 to the War Office, with the request that a qualified official might be sent out as my "Technical Adviser" for educational purposes. The matter was taken in hand, and in February, 1917, a specialist in the person of Dr. Garnett was found. Dr. Garnett was peculiarly well fitted for the part, as he had occupied the positions of Secretary to the Technical Education Board, and Adviser to the London County Council. From 1892 to 1904 he had been responsible for the organization of the Polytechnics, and for the work carried out by the London County Council under the Technical Instruction Act. From 1904 to 1915 he had been closely associated with their work as Educational Adviser, and in that capacity had acquired an intimate knowledge of trade requirements.
Dr. Garnett reached Switzerland in April, 1917, and, accompanied by Major H. R. Charley, Royal Irish Rifles, made a tour of inspection of all British and French Institutes. On the conclusion of this inspection he framed a scheme of instruction based on the following principles:—
To give effect to these recommendations, he proposed the erection of Central Schools at Brienz, Meiringen, and Seebourg (Lucerne), where the necessary accommodation and motive power could be obtained, and, further, the enlargement of the Motor Engineering School at Vevey. Brienz and Meiringen had the advantage of being in the vicinity of Mürren and Interlaken; Vevey, in that of Château d'Oex; whilst Seebourg, though farther away, had the unique advantage of affording residential and workshop accommodation in one institution—the Polytechnic Châlets.
The subjects suggested for technical study were:—
The teaching staff was to be sent out from England, with the exception of that for No. 5. The expenditure for the above-mentioned scheme, inclusive of the cost of new materials, was estimated at about £4,000 per annum.
The report of Dr. Garnett, transmitted by the War Office to the "B.R.C.S.," London, was approved by the latter, who undertook to promote and finance the undertaking. Interest in the question was also taken by the Ministry of Pensions, to whom the training and education of wounded men was naturally of great importance. The practical application of the scheme was placed in the hands of Lord Sandwich and Major R. N. Mitchell, the former representing the "B.R.C.S.," London, the latter the Ministry of Pensions. Prior to the departure from London of these gentlemen to inspect conditions in Switzerland, several British firms, with whom Major Mitchell had been in consultation, offered to send out managers and instructors to take charge of one or other of the classes related to their interests, to provide all the raw material required, to remunerate the men, and, further, to guarantee employment on repatriation to all those men giving proof of efficiency whilst under instruction. This guarantee appeared to me the solution of the whole problem, and honour is due to the brain which first originated the idea. Amongst firms taking part in this venture were: Messrs. Brinsmead and Co., pianoforte makers; Messrs. Worral and Co., Birmingham, leather work; and Mr. D. Davis, fancy leather bag manufacturer. The "Auto-Car" Management, under the inspiration of Lieut. Wallis, also offered to bear the whole cost of the Motor Engineering School at Vevey. The above proposals practically ensured the success of the scheme laid down by Dr. Garnett, and gave it a very attractive form in the eyes of the men, whose future was thereby safeguarded.
On the occasion of the visit of Lord Sandwich and Major Mitchell to Switzerland in August, 1917, they had the advantage of the advice and assistance of Dr. Garnett. The chief problem consisted in finding premises where the whole of the proposed technical training might be centralized. Unfortunately, nothing of the kind was available, and it was accordingly decided, with my approval and that of the Swiss authorities, to establish the Central Schools as proposed by Dr. Garnett, with the exception of Brienz, which was eliminated:—Meiringen, for leather work and tailoring; Seebourg, for pianoforte making and carpentry, electrical work, watch-making, etc.; Vevey, for motor engineering. This would suffice, it was estimated, to exhaust the available number of men seeking training, and, apart from the closure of the elementary motor engineering classes at Mürren and Château d'Oex, leave the Institutes of the regimental type, such as Army Classes, and all the other classes, to continue their work as heretofore at the camps.
On Lord Sandwich's return to London, arrangements were made to give effect to the amended scheme, and, at my request, Major Charley and Lieut. Wallis were nominated by the War Office to take their place on my Staff, the former as Officer in Charge of Technical Training, the latter to resume charge of the Motor Engineering School at Vevey. These officers, further, represented the interests which the "B.R.C.S.," London, had in the scheme.
In September, 1917, the repatriation of some of the British Interned somewhat delayed arrangements, but at last, in October, expert managers and instructors arrived from England, sent by the firms mentioned, and work was seriously begun by November, 1917.
The men displayed considerable aptitude, and achieved a standard of efficiency which should enable them to keep their situations on their return to England. Remuneration was made to each apprentice in proportion to his work, and was sufficient to give him a personal interest in the output.
The Tailoring Class was conducted by a West-end tailor, late Sergt.-Instructor in the Army. The workshop was located in an annexe of the Hôtel Flora, at Meiringen, and was fitted with four machines electrically driven. Attention was mainly directed to the making of uniforms, the raw materials for which were supplied by the Army Clothing Department. The garments, on completion, were taken over by that Department, ordinary rates being paid for the work, the men receiving a proportionate remuneration.
The Advanced School of Motor Engineering, opened at Vevey by Lieut. Wallis in March, 1917, owed its origin to the success of the elementary motor class founded by that officer at Mürren. It was, further, made possible by the splendid generosity of the well-known firms of Peter Cailler, Kohler and Co., Messrs. Nestlé and Co., and other Swiss firms in the Jura, surplus machinery, moreover, being given or lent by Messrs. Picard and Pictet, Geneva, and Messrs. Müller and Co., Lausanne, and others.
The expenses of the School, beyond the money gifts made to Lieut. Wallis for that purpose, were met by the "B.L.R.C.O." and the Central P. of W. Committee, until October, 1917. From that date, the expenses were guaranteed by the management of the "Auto-Car," London, who further provided material and machinery, and whose keen interest in the enterprise was of inestimable value.
The training, which included electrical instruction in connection with motor-car work, was of a thoroughly practical nature, and should be of great value to the men later; as also the Metal Work Class, opened in connection with the Vevey School at Château d'Oex, and instructed by a skilled Interned, Chief Petty Officer Harpe. In this class, various kinds of sheet metal work, welding, and brazing, were taught with great success.
All the Central Schools were well established and in thorough working order when I left Switzerland in May, 1918. Both instructors and men showed great interest in the work, and were ably supervised by Major Charley and Lieut. Wallis—the latter since promoted to Captain—and I had every reason to be satisfied with the results.
In August, 1918, it was decided to close down the Meiringen and Seebourg Centres, and concentrate the classes at Vevey, in the workshops previously occupied by French Interned. These premises were taken over by the "B.R.C.S.," London, with their machines, tools, fittings, etc., and the transfer was made in September and October. These workshops, known as "B.I.T.S." (British Interned Technical School), were closed on November 25, in anticipation of the repatriation of December 6, 1918, when British Interned in Switzerland left the country.
The following figures have lately reached me, giving in detail the final results achieved under the scheme of technical training:—
| Average number of men in training from December, 1917, to December, 1918 | 172 | |
| Total number of men trained | 443 | |
| Average period of training | 5·35 | months. |
| Total cost of undertaking | 173,534·87 | francs. |
| Average expenditure per man for 443 men | 391·72 | francs. |
The total of frs. 173,534·87 includes the "B.R.C.S.," London, outlay, the "Auto-Car" outlay, and running expenses of the Motor School at Vevey, and the expenses of installation of "B.I.T.S." at Vevey (about frs. 33,000). The average cost of training would have been considerably higher had it not been for the valuable assistance rendered by Swiss firms in the equipment of the workshops. The installation of the "B.I.T.S.," for instance, was comparatively inexpensive, owing to the generosity of Messrs. Nestlé and the Anglo-Swiss Milk Company, who put in all the electric light and extra heating free of cost.
The figures given above appear to me somewhat disappointing, as they fall short of our original intention, which was to provide technical instruction for 300 men at a time. That figure was never reached, owing to an impression, held in common by the men, that regular work might militate against their chances of repatriation. Many of them were, therefore, loth to engage themselves for continuous instruction, and though the impression was entirely erroneous, it was none the less difficult of eradication, and rendered the men shy of the schools.
There is no doubt, I believe, that many of the men were, temperamentally, incapable of making the best of their opportunities. This was more especially the case with soldiers of the Regular Army, who were not immediately concerned as to their status in civil life after the war. I cannot avoid the conclusion that the fault lies in no small degree in a system which makes no provision for the technical instruction of the soldier whilst still serving in the ranks, and in this connection an incident of my cadet days at Sandhurst in 1874-75 comes to mind. We cadets were asked to give our views regarding the training of the soldier, and I hazarded the opinion that he should be taught a trade, in order that he might be fitted to take his place in civil life on discharge. This view met with no encouragement, and I was informed that "financial considerations alone would prevent the realization of any such quixotic ideal."
Under the stress of war, the Ministry of Pensions and the "B.R.C.S.," London, have, in initiating a system of training in Switzerland, Holland, and at home, done much to remedy the faults of the past, and have awakened in the public a sense of their obligation towards the man who is ready to give some of the best years of his life to the service of the country. I have little doubt that it will be found necessary in the future to give every soldier a thorough technical training during the years of his military service, in order that he may without delay take his place in the economic life of the country when the term of his military service expires.