1. To tie or join together. Tengdir = bonds or ties of affinity; tengda-modir = mother-in-law; tengda-fadir = father-in-law.
2. Powerful chiefs sometimes sent ambassadors to ask for the hand of the lady they wanted to wed.
3. Cf. also c. 13, 98.
4. Farm of Fridthjóf’s father.
5. The mund was the property or money which the suitor was to give to the bride.
6. The word festar implied that she was fastened, or, in a modern sense, betrothed to the man; and this important ceremony preliminary to marriage took place in the presence of six witnesses.
7. Common woollen cloth.
8. Cf. also Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 51; Njala, c. 2.
9. A ship.
10. The word seems to imply a gift of linen, in which, perhaps, clothing was included. Olaf Tryggvason gave a cloak as linfé.
11. Cf. Gunnlaug Ormstunga, c. 4.
12. Cf. also Laxdæla.
13. Skupla = a woman’s hood hiding the face.
14. This necklace had been made by Dvergar, and belonged to Freyja.
15. Stones to make a false breast.
16. Cf. also Rigsmal, 23.
17. Thor.
18. For the whole story of Thor and Thrym, as translated from the Earlier Edda, see Anderson’s Mythology, pp. 328–335; and especially, in connection with this, pp. 331, 332.
19. Cf. also Hörd, c. 3.
20. Cf. also Droplaugar sona Saga, 23, 24.
21. Borgarthing’s Law says thirty years; in Iceland after three years (Gragas, 153). But however these laws differed, they all agree that the woman owns one-third, the man two-thirds.
22. A court of execution or confiscation to be held within a fortnight after the sentence at the house of a person convicted in one of the two degrees of outlawry.
23. Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, 53.
24. Cf. also Gragas, i. 331.
25. This Sigmund is the famous champion of the Faroes.
26. Cf. also Sturlunga, i., c. 13; Fornmanna Sögur, iv. c. 24–26; Hörd’s Saga, c. 11.
27. Cf. also Vatnsdæla Saga, c. 12; Ljosvetninga Saga, c. 13; Hervarar Saga, c. 10.
28. Cf. also Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12.
29. Costly woven stuff.
30. Cf. Fornmanna Sögur, ii. 133; Laxdæla, 69; Gunnlaug Ormstunga, ch. ii.
31. Cf. Hænsa Thori’s Saga, c. 12.
32. Umagi, one that cannot support himself.
33. Negative inheritance.
34. Before people in a hall.
35. Concubines were both slaves of high birth who were captured in war and women of lower birth, and seem to have often lived in the house. Njal had a concubine whose son by him was killed, and Njal’s wife was anxious to avenge his death. Their status seems to have depended on that of the man with whom they lived.
36. Another text states that the women also are punished if they do the opposite.
37. This probably means derisive songs.
38. In Iceland a high degree of poverty after the marriage was a lawful reason for divorce (Gragas, 40).
39. Frostathing Law, xi., xiv.
40. According to Borgarthing Law, a wife after waiting three years for the return of her husband could marry again.
41. Cf. also Gulathing’s Law, 54.
42. There is an example of a man leaving his wife on account of extravagance in the household, and for insulting him in the presence of people (Landnama, ii. 6; Njala, 34).
43. A bargain was sealed by hand-shaking, a custom still prevalent in Norway, where, when the traveller has paid his fare on the post road from one station to another, the driver shakes hands with him.
44. The words ausa moldu mean ‘to pour mould on’ (to bury). In Ynglingatal the expression ausinn (another form of the verb) haugi is used of a man buried in a mound.
45. Some form of water rite under one shape or another was practised by Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hebrews, Romans, Hindus, &c. In the Frankish annals, the Northmen when they were baptized were led into the rivers, a custom which apparently prevailed among the earlier Christians with adult people.
46. Cf. also Halfdan the Black’s Saga, c. 7; Laxdæla, c. 28; Fornmanna Sögur, i., p. 31; Olaf Tryggvason, i., pp. 13–14; Fornmanna Sögur.
47. Cf. Svarfdæla, c. 5.
48. This refers to Sigurd’s name ‘Snake Eye.’
49. Heaven.
50. King.
51. This is the only place where Neri is mentioned.
52. It is probable that this third string northwards was a string of bad luck or evil fate; but Bugge says it meant Helgi’s fame in the North, which was to be everlasting.
53. Sigmund, Helgi’s father, is here called son of the Ylfings, though he was of the Völsunga family. Even Helgi himself is called Skjöldung in the second Helgi lay.
54. The friend of wolves—a warrior who by his fights gave food to the wolves.
55. Dögling (1) a descendant of Dag, (2) a chief of any family.
56. The giving of garlic at the ceremony of name-fastening, seems to have had some symbolic meaning. From St. Olaf’s Saga we see that it was used for curing wounds: in Gudrunar Kvida the leek is used as opposed to grass, perhaps implying that the child to whom it was given would stand as high among men as it did amongst grass.
57. King.
58. These estates were given to him with the name-fastening, as was customary.
59. Ring-steads.
60. Sun mountains.
61. Snow mountains.
62. Fields of Sigar.
63. Ring-harbour.
64. High town.
65. Heaven-fields.
66. Sword.
67. Cf. also Hrolf Kraki’s Saga, c. 42.
68. Three fasting-times.
69. Probably a field belonging to a temple.
70. Cf. also Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 21.
71. Torfi had been vexed at Signy’s marriage, because he was away when the betrothal took place, and had not been consulted about the match.
72. Cf. also Harald Fairhair’s Saga, c. 21.
73. Cf. also Hord’s Saga, c. 9.
74. Cf. also Landnama, iii. c. 10.
75. The grave probably of the Gothic kings.
76. A stone for kings to step on at their election.
77. In this passage we see clearly that only rings were used as money.
78. God-thjód, Goth-thjód, Got-thjód in different texts, as if connected with gods.
79. Cf. also Hervarar Saga, c. 16.
80. When paupers have been divided like property, they go from heir to heir, &c.
81. The son of a man who is a freed man and has a wife before his freedom-ale has been made, and has a son by that woman, shall not take the inheritance of any man though he is carried between skauts (cloak-skirts, laps). (Earlier Frostathing Law, ix. 15).
82. When a man was unable to manage his property and spoiled it, then it could be divided without his leave by the heirs. Cf. also Frostathing, ix. 20.
83. Son of a free woman begotten secretly.
84. Son of a free woman who has had no mund paid.
85. Kinsmen on the father’s side are preferred to kinsmen on the mother’s side.
86. A mörk was probably four ounces.
87. The Frostathing Laws give a general rule for the degrees in which inheritances descended. Kinsmen on the father’s side were preferred to those on the mother’s side.
88. Jardar = of earth, men = necklace. The name of jardarmen (a neck ring, necklace of earth (turf)) probably meant a loop, the turf being cut in a semi-circular shape, for any other form of strip could not well have been raised from the ground without breaking.
89. The Saga is called Fostbrædra Saga (Foster-brothers’ Saga) after them.
90. Cf. also Sturlaug Starfsami, c. 13, and Hord’s Saga, c. 12.
91. Another text adds: “Thorgeir said, ‘This was not seriously meant that we should try each other.’ Thormod answered: ‘It came across thy mind while thou saidst it, and we will part.’”
92. In the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg there is a short, double-edged sword, dug up in Southern Russia, the scabbard of which is entirely of gold.
93. Cfr. also Thorstein Vikingsson’s Saga, ch. 15, 20.
94. Hole in middle of millstone.
95. Cfr. also An’s Saga Bogsveigis, ch. 1.
96. Cfr. Sturlunga, 111.
97. Harmer of brynjas = sword.
98. Valböst, an unknown part of the sword.
99. It was only in later times that cross-bows (lás bogi) were used, with a trigger or spring. They are mentioned about the year 1200.
100. Cf. also Ketil Hœng’s Saga, c. 3.
101. See Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 31; also Sturlunga, v. c. 17; Færeyinga Saga, c. 18.
102. Thorleif is mentioned in Hakon Adalsteinsfóstri’s Saga, ch. 11, as “Thorleif the Wise,” who helped the king to establish the Gulathing-laws.
103. Cf. Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 13.
104. Völsunga and Snorra Edda.
105. Ynglinga Saga.
106. Cf. also Færeyinga Saga, c. 24
107. Spanga-brynja.
108. Cf. Olaf’s Saga, 216; Fornmanna Sögur, viii.
109. Cf. a similar practice in duelling. This custom of staking and choosing the field of battle is also seen to have been practised by the Massagetæ. Tomyris sent word to Cyrus, who came to subjugate her country, and was building a bridge: “Toil no longer in making a bridge over the river, but cross over to our side while we retire three days’ march from the river; or, if you had rather receive us on your side, do you the like.”
110. Cf. also Flateyjarbok, ii., p. 188.
111. Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason, i., p. 207; (Fms.); St. Olaf (Heimskringla), c. 118.
112. Cf. also An Bogsveigi’s Saga; Orvar Odd’s Saga; Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 6.
113. In the account of this battle the word hamalt is used synonymously with svinfylking.
114. The word for the general state of peace was Frid. Grid appears in its early meaning to have denoted a peculiar state of peace, quarter, protection, or temporary or local cessation of hostilities.
115. Bold as hawks.
116. On leaving a place it was customary to have a feast with one’s friends. It was such a feast that is here referred to.
117. This subject would naturally be included in the earlier part of the work, but the tracings contain so many figures of ancient ships that I have thought it appropriate to introduce the chapters at this stage.
118. Two valuable works on rock-tracings are those of A. E. Holmberg and L. Baltzer.
119. “Etudes sur l’antiquité historique d’après les sources Egyptiennes et sur les monuments réputés préhistoriques,” par F. Chabas.
120. The finest example of those without figures is to be seen in the Museum of St. Germain near Paris.
121. See ‘Land of the Midnight Sun,’ vol. i., p. 355.
122. Several representations, on account of their coarseness, are not as correct in the illustrations as they should be.
123. Cf. also Olaf Tryggvason, c. 102; St. Olaf, c. 60, 150.
124. The Nydam and Gokstad boats seem to have been a fifteen-seated skuta or karfi. Some skutas seem to have carried a crew of about thirty men.
126. Cf. also St. Olaf, c. 132, 149; Magnus Blind’s Saga, c. 5, 16; Magnus Erlingson, c. 30.
127. See Battle of Svold.
128. This may explain the name Askmanni given to the Vikings by Adam of Bremen (c. 212).
129. Cf. also Ingi’s Saga, c. 1.
130. In the lypting seems to have been the sleeping-room, for in Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 22, it is said of Harald, on his journey from Constantinople, that “in the evening (he) went to sleep in the lypting of his ship.”
131. Ship boat, also a small vessel.
132. Cf. also Eyrbyggja, c. 29.
133. Cf. Orvar Odd, Hervara Saga, Harald Hardradi, 32; Olaf Tryggvason, c. 87.
134. Cf. also St. Olaf, c. 39.
135. In the Vold ship also there are some specimens of carving, but they are rare.
136. Cf. also Magnus the Good’s Saga, c. 20.
137. When the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, the Belgians sent many relics home (these are reckoned up in D’Outremann, ‘Constantinopolis Belgica’); among them this dragon was sent to Bruges. In 1382, Bruges was taken and plundered by the men of Ghent, and the dragon as a trophy was put on the top of the belfry in Ghent, where it still is.
In Sigurd Jorsalafari’s Saga (Heimskringla), ch. 14, and Fornmanna Sögur, vii. 98, we read that Sigurd put the gilded dragon-heads of his ship on Peter’s Church (a part of Sophia Church, in Constantinople) (‘Recueil des chroniques de Flandre 1837–41,’ vol. i.; Schiern, ‘Nyere historiske Studier,’ i. 1875).
138. The Bayeux tapestry corroborates the truthfulness of this, and shows that designs were either painted or embroidered upon them.
139. Grandson of the great Hakon.
140. An ornament used on the prow of ships and main doors of houses—a sort of weathercock, which was often adorned with gold.
141. Saturday.
143. Cf. also Egil’s Saga, c. 55, 72; St. Olaf, 148; Fagrskinna, 42.
144. Phosphorescent, looking like fire at night.
145. That is, swells as high as a mound.
146. The sea is compared to snow lying in heaps or drifts.
148. Heimskringla says 600 ships.
149. The English chronicles mention numerous instances of large fleets descending on various parts of the coast, of which the following are a few:—
In the year 860, in the time of Ethelred a large fleet came to the land, and the crews stormed Winchester.
In the year 893 the Danish army came, from the east westward to Boulogne, and their war ships. They landed at the mouth of the Limne with 250 ships (this is in the eastern part of Kent).
In the year 894 the Danes among the Northumbrians and East Anglians gathered 100 ships and went south to besiege Exeter.
In the year 927 King Anlaf entered the Humber with a vast fleet of 615 sails.
In the year 993 Olave, with 93 ships, came to Staines.
In the year 994 Olave and Sveyn (Olaf of Norway and Svein of Denmark) came to London with 94 ships.
In the year 1006 a great fleet came to Sandwich and ravaged wherever it went. It returned in winter to the Isle of Wight; the distress and fear in the land were extreme. £36,000 and provisions was paid as tribute to the invaders.
In the year 1009, Thurkills came with his fleet to England, and after him another innumerable fleet of Danes, the chiefs of which were Hemming and Ailaf.
In the year 1069 the sons of Svein came from Denmark with 240 ships into the Humber.
In the year 1075 200 ships came from Denmark under Knut, son of Sweyne and Hecco, but did not dare to risk a battle with King William. After plundering in York they went to Flanders.
The Frankish chronicles give an account also of various fleets:—
In the year 810 the emperor (Charlemagne), then at Aix-la-Chapelle, planned an expedition against King Godfrey. He suddenly received the news that a fleet of 200 ships coming from the country of the North had landed in Frisia, and ravaged all the islands adjacent to their shores.
In the year 845 Eurick, king of the Northmen, advanced against Louis in Germany with 600 vessels along the river Elbe.
In the year 850 Rorik, the nephew of Harold, who had recently left the service of Lothair, taking with him an army of Northmen, comes by the Rhine and the Watal with a multitude of ships, devastating Frisia, the island of Batavia, and other neighbourhood places.
In the year 852 the Northmen arrived in Frisia with 252 ships; after having received much silver they go elsewhere.
In the year 852 Godfrey, son of Harold the Dane, formerly baptized at Mayence, under the reign of the Emperor Louis, left Lothair and went to find his people. Afterwards having assembled a powerful force, he attacks Frisia with a multitude of vessels, and then enters the territory bordering on the river Scheldt.
In the year 857 the Danish pirates invaded the city of Paris and set fire to it. Here there must have been an enormous fleet.
In the year 861 the Danes, who had lately burned the town of Terouanne, came back under their chief Weland from the country of the Angles with more than 200 ships.
In the year 865, from Attigny Charles marched an army against the Northmen, who had entered the Seine with 500 ships. (We find at the same time Northmen on the Loire.)