Some Things Worth Knowing

The people of the earth speak 2,754 languages or dialects.

There are 640 acres in a square mile.

The ordinary flour barrel contains 196 pounds of flour.

What is known as a hand measure is 4 inches.

The sun is over 92,500,000 miles from the earth, and the nearest fixed star is 16,000,000,000 miles from the earth.

The stock yards in Chicago, which are the largest in the world, have 20 miles of streets, and the same number of miles of water troughs, with 50 miles of feeding troughs, and 75 miles of drainage. The yards will accommodate over 20,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, and 120,000 hogs at one time. They cost over $10,000,000.

The average person inhales 2,600 gallons of air per day.

Songs of the Civil War

1. Battle Cry of Freedom.—George F. Root. "Yes, we'll rally round the flag, boys."
2. Battle Flag of the Republic.—O. W. Holmes. "Flag of the heroes who left us their glory."
3. Battle Hymn of the Republic.—Julia Ward Howe. "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."
4. The Blue and the Gray.—Francis M. Finch. "By the flow of the inland river."
5. Brave Boys Are They.—Henry C. Work. "Brave boys are they, gone at their country's call."
6. Dixie (Southern).—Albert Pike. "Southrons, hear your country call you."
7. Dixie (Northern).—T. M. Cooley. "Away down South where grows the cotton."
8. John Brown's Body. "John Brown's body lies a-mould'ring in the grave."
9. Just Before the Battle, Mother.—George F. Root. "Just before the battle, mother, I am thinking most of you."
10. Marching Through Georgia.—Henry C. Work. "Bring the good old bugle, boys; we'll sing another song."
11. Maryland, My Maryland (Southern).—Joseph R. Randall. "The despot's heel is on thy shore, Maryland, my Maryland."
12. Oh, Wrap the Flag Around Me, Boys.—R. Stewart Taylor.
13. Tramp, Tramp, Tramp.—George F. Root. "In the prison cell I sit."
14. When Johnny Comes Marching Home.—Louis Lambert.
15. When This Cruel War Is Over.—Charles C. Sawyer. "Dearest love, do you remember?"

—Harper's "Book of Facts."

Spectacles and Glasses.—If you find it difficult to read, or your eyes become weak and tired, the chances are you need proper glasses. Don't attempt to fit them to yourself. Employ a first-class optician or oculist, the latter if the trouble appears to be serious.

Sporting, Speed, and Other Records

The following records are compiled from the latest and best authorities:

Airship Records: Highest altitude reached, 17,881 feet; longest non-stop flight, 635-5/8 miles in 13 hours, 22 minutes; longest time in the air, 16-1/2 hours.

Automobile Records: 1 mile, 25.40 s.; 2 miles, 51.28 s.; 5 miles, 2 m., 34 s.; 50 miles, 35m., 52-1/2 s.; 100 miles, 1h., 12 m., 41 1-5 s.; 300 miles, 3 h., 53 m., 33-1/2 s.; 500 miles, 6 h., 21 m., 6 3-10 s.

Baseball: Baseball became the National Game in 1885, although it was played to some extent as early as 1840. The first baseball club was known as the New York Knickerbockers, which was organized in 1845, and the first match game was played at Hoboken, N. J., in 1846. The first rules governing baseball were made in New York City, in 1857, and the National Baseball League was formed in New York City during the same year. The first champion team was that of New York, in 1858, but it was not until 1868 that a salaried team was in existence. The National League was formed in 1876, and the American League in 1881. The largest attendance at a baseball match was in New York, Oct. 17, 1911, at which time 38,281 people were present.

Billiards: Straight rail, 5 × 10 table, best run, 1,535 points, made by Maurice Vignaux in Paris; straight rail, 4-1/2 × 9 table, best run, 3,000 points, Jake Schaefer in San Francisco; 14-inch balk line, anchor in, best run, 566, Jake Schaefer in New York; 14-inch balk line, anchor barred, best run, 359, Frank Ives in Chicago; 18-inch balk line, best run, 200, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line, best average, 50, Frank Ives in New York; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best run, 111, Jake Schaefer in Chicago; 18-inch balk line (no shot in), best average, 19 3-13, Frank Ives in Chicago; high run, 18.2 balk line, 1,009 single inning, W. W. Spink in Los Angeles.

Bowling: Individual three-game score, Thomas Hally, Detroit, 705.

Endurance Records: Relay Race, Young Men's Christian Association boys carried message from New York to Chicago; time, 118 h., 35 m.; distance, 1,200 miles. (Run suspended during Sunday, July 19.)

5,100 miles, go as you please, 51 miles per day for 100 days, track 44 laps to mile, George D. Noremac, New York.

4,000 quarter-miles in 4,000 periods of 10 minutes (walking a quarter-mile at the commencement of and within each consecutive 10 minutes), performed twice by William Gales, at Cardiff, and at London, England.

1,000 miles in 1,000 consecutive hours, walking 1 mile each hour, by Charles F. Morse, at Jackson, Mich., starting at 1 P. M., Jan. 11, 1897, and ending at 4 A. M., Feb. 22, 1897, track 39 laps to mile.

Greatest distance walked without a rest, 121 miles, 385 yds., by C. A. Harriman, California.

Walk from Atlantic to Pacific Ocean: John Ennis started with a plunge in the surf at Coney Island, N. Y., Monday, May 23, 1910, and arrived at the Cliff Hotel, San Francisco, August 24, 1910, and took a plunge in the Weston's time by 25 days. Ennis, like Weston, did not walk on Sundays.

Hammer Throwing: 8 lb. hammer, 210 ft., 3 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland; 10 lb. hammer, 140 ft., 2 in., W. L. Condon, Maryland.

Hurdle Racing,—Amateur: 40 yds., 2 ft., 6 in., = 5 sec., Forest Smithson, Indiana; F. Fletcher, Indiana; T. N. Richards, Indiana; 50 yds., 3 high hurdles (indoors), = 6 1-5 s., Forest Smithson, Portland, Ore.; 75 yds., low hurdles, 2 ft., 6 in. = 9 1-5 s., John J. Eller, New York.

Jumping,—Amateur: Standing, without weights, 11 ft., 4-7/8 in., Ray C. Ewry, St. Louis; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 7 in., George Horine, California.

Jumping,—Professional: Standing high jump, with weights, 6 ft., 5-1/2 in., J. Darby, England; running high jump, without weights, 6 ft., 1 in., M. F. Sweeney.

Marathon Team Race: 26 miles, 385 yds., 2 h., 2 m., 16 1-5 s., Hans Holmer and William Queal, New York.

Motor Cycle Records: 1 mile, 36 4-5 s.; 10 miles, 6 m., 21 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 1 h., 15 m., 24 2-5 s.

Ocean Records.: From Queenstown to New York, S. S. "Mauretania," 4 days, 10 hours, 41 minutes. The fastest day run was made by the same ship, 676 knots, or a little over 27 knots per hour.

Pole Vaulting,—Amateur: Pole vault for height, 13 ft., 2-1/4 in., Mark S. Wright, New York; 13 ft., 1 in., Robert A. Gardner, Philadelphia. For boys, 12 ft., 1/2 in., Roy Mercer, Philadelphia.

Pole Vaulting,—Professional: 11 ft., 7 in., M. H. Dickinson, England.

Running Records,—Professional: 20 yds., 2 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 100 yds., 9 1-5 s., R. P. Williams, New London, Conn.; 1,000 yds., 2 m. 17 s., W. Cummings, England; 1 mile, 4 m. 12-3/4 s., W. G. George, England; 100 miles, 13 h. 26 m. 30 s., Charles Rowell, New York.

Running Records,—Amateur: 20 yds., 2 4-5 s., E. B. Bloss, Roxbury, Mass.; 25 yds., 3 s., Jack Connolly, Boston; 35 yds., 4 s., Arthur Duffy, Baltimore; 40 yds., 4 2-5 s., (indoors), W. D. Eaton, Boston; Doc Thorney, Madison, Wis., 4 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., (indoors), Forline, St. Louis; 50 yds., 5 1-5 s., J. H. Maybury, Wisconsin University; 50 yds., on grass, 5 2-5 s., A. D. Duffey, N. Z.; 60 yds., on grass, 6 2-5 s., A. F. Duffey, Australia; 60 yds. indoors, 6 1-5 s., Charles E. Seitz, Washington; 100 yds, 9 3-5 s., A. F. Duffey, New; York.

Running Distance,—Amateur: 1 mile, 4 m., 15 2-5 s., John P. Jones, Cambridge, Mass.; 2 miles, 9 m., 9 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland; 3 miles, 14 m., 17 3-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, England; 4 miles, 19 m., 23 2-5 s., Alfred Shrubb, Scotland.

Shot Putting,—Amateur: Putting 8 lb. shot, 67 ft. 7 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 12 lb. shot, 57 ft. 3 in., Ralph Rose, New York; putting 20 lb. shot, 38 ft. 7-1/2 in., G. R. Gray, New York.

Shot Putting,—Professional: Putting 12 lb. shot, 50 ft. 1/2 in., J. D. McPherson; putting 20 lb. shot, 40 ft. 11-1/4 in., J. D. McPherson.

Skating,—Amateur: 50 yds., 5 2-5 s., Morris Wood, Pittsburgh; 100 yds., standing start, 8 3-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Minneapolis; 300 yds., 31 2-5 s., G. D. Phillips, New York; 1 mile, 2 m. 36 s., Johnny Neilson; 5 miles, 14 m. 24 s., O. Rudd, Minneapolis; 10 miles, 31 m. 11 1-5 s., J. S. Johnson, Montreal; 25 miles, 1 h. 31 m. 29 s.; 50 miles, 3 h. 15 m. 59 3-5 s.; 75 miles, 5 h. 19 m. 16 4-5 s.; 100 miles, 7 h. 11 m. 38 1-5 s.—all made by J. F. Donoghue, Stamford, Conn.

Skating,—Professional: 1/4 mile, against time; flying start, straightaway, 28-1/2 s., John S. Johnson, Minnesota; 1/2 mile, indoor track, 1 m., 16 4-5 s., W. Rankin, Cleveland; 1 mile, indoors, 2 m., 48-3/4 s., John Nilsson, Pittsburgh; 5 miles, 14 m., 47 1-5 s., John Nilsson, Montreal.

Swimming: 40 yards, 18 s. (exhibition), Dick Cavill, Portland, Ore.; 100 yds., 1 m., 1-1/2 s., J. Nuttall, Stalybridge, England; 150 yds., 1 m., 39 s., D. Billington, Swinton, England; 200 yds., 2 m., 18-1/2 s., D. Billington, in England; 300 yds., 3 m., 32 1-5 s., D. Billington, in England; 500 yds., 6 m., 6 s., D. Billington, in England; 1,000 yds., 12 m., 45 s., D. Billington, in England; 3/4 mile, 17 m., 36 2-5 s., David Billington, Sydney, N. S. W.; 1 mile, 26 m., 8 s., J. Nuttall, in England; 20-3/8 miles, 5 h., 51 m., Fred Cavill, River Thames, London; 34 miles, 9 h., 39 m., J. Wolfe, Herne Bay, England; 35 miles, 21 h., 45 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, Dover, England to Calais; 40 miles, 9 h., 57 m., Capt. Matthew Webb, with tide, River Thames, England; 74 miles, 84 h., Capt. Webb (restricted to 14 hours a day), Lambeth Baths, England. T. W. Burgess swam English channel, Dover to Cape Grisnez, in 22 h., 35 m.

Swimming (Women): Longest time under water, 4 m., 45-1/2 s., Miss E. Wallenda, England; at Barnley Baths, Scotland, Miss Ethel Mackay swam 200 yds. in 2 m., 57 1-5 s.; 50 yds., 31 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 80 yds., 56-1/2 s., by Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee, Wis.; 100 yds., 1 m., 6 s., by Miss Fanny Durack, New Zealand; 100 yds., back stroke, 1 m., 26 s., Miss Elba Whittaker, Milwaukee; 200 yds., 2 m., 51 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; 300 yds., 4 m., 31 1-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, London; Miss Daisy Curwen, in England; 1 mile, 32 m., 8 1-5 s., Miss Mabel Fletcher, in England; open water, 31 m., 41 4-5 s., Miss Vera Neave, Jersey, England.

Trotting Records: 1/4 mile, 28-3/4 seconds,—Lou Dillon, Brighton Beach, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1903; 1/2 mile, 58-3/4 s.,—Lou Dillon, Cleveland, O., Sept. 17, 1904; 1 mile, 1 m., 58 s.,—Uhlan (with wind shield) Lexington, Ky., Oct. 8, 1912; 2 miles, 4 m., 15-1/4 s.,—The Harvester, Lexington, Ky.; Oct. 13, 1910; 3 miles, 6 m., 55-1/2 s.,—Nightingale, 8 yrs. old, Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 20, 1893; 4 miles, 9 m., 42 s.,—Baron Rogers, Moscow, Russia, 1899; 5 miles, 12 m., 24 s.,—Zambra, 1902; 10 miles, 26 m., 15 s.,—Pascal, New York, Nov. 2, 1893; 20 miles, 58 m., 25 s.,—Captain McGowan, Boston, Oct. 31, 1865; 50 miles, 3 h., 55 m., 40-1/2 s.,—Ariel, brown mare, May 5, 1846, Albany, N. Y. The fastest mare made 1 mile in 1 m., 58-1/2 s.,; the fastest gelding, a mile in 1 m., 58 s.; the fastest stallion, 1 mile in 2 m., 1 s.

Walking Records,—Amateur: 75 yds., 11 4-5 seconds, Harry Fitzpatrick, New Orleans; 1/4 mile, 1 m., 22 1-5 s.; 1/2 mile, 3 m., F. H. Creamer, New Zealand; 1 mile, 6 m., 22 4-5 s., W. Murray, Australia.

Walking Records,—Professional: 1/4 mile, 1 m., 26 s., 1/2 mile, 3 m., 1/2 s.; 1 mile, 6 m., 22-1/2 s., M. H. Donovan, Westport, N. Y.; 2 miles, 13 m., 14 s., H. W. Raby, in England; 5 miles, 35 m., 10 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 10 miles, 1 h., 14 m., 45 s., J. W. Raby, in England; 25 miles, 3 h., 35 m., 14 s., W. Franks, in England; 100 miles, 18 h., 4 m., W. A. Hoagland, in New York.

Standard Time

Until 1883, each city or district maintained its own time, usually accepting what is known as True Time. This condition caused complications. For example: Many railroad-station clocks either gave two times, or else there were separate clocks for each time, some of the trains leaving the station on what was know as New York time, while others left on local time. Banks and business houses closed on either of the times. There was no standard and no agreement.

In 1883, Standard Time was established.

The First Section was known as the Eastern, and covered all territory between the Atlantic Coast and a line drawn from Detroit, Michigan, to Charleston, South Carolina.

The Central Section included everything between the Detroit-Charleston line, and a line drawn from Bismarck, North Dakota, to the mouth of the Rio Grande River.

The Third Section, known as "Mountain Time," included the territory between the Bismarck-Rio Grande line and the western borders of Idaho, Utah, and Arizona.

The Pacific Time Section embraced everything west of the Mountain Time line, up to and including the Pacific coast.

There is a difference of just one hour between the sections. When it is 12 o'clock at Boston, Mass., or at New York City, it is 11 o'clock at Chicago, and at San Francisco 9 o'clock.

The changing from so-called Local or True Time to Standard Time required clocks at Boston to be set back 16 minutes; New York clocks to be set back 4 minutes; Detroit clocks to be set back 28 minutes; St. Louis clocks to be moved ahead one minute; and San Francisco clocks to be set ahead ten minutes.

Standard Time has been accepted by every State and by practically every city, although a very few cities and towns unprogressively hold to the former or True Time. The Canadian Pacific Railroad, which has the longest mileage of any railroad in the world, is run on what is known as the 24-Hour Time; that is, the faces of its clocks, instead of bearing the figures 1 to 12, run from 1 to 24 inclusive. The time-tables are rather confusing, as trains are billed to arrive and depart at 13:10, 16:14, 23:30, etc. This system appears to have only one advantage,—that it eliminates the use of A. M. and P. M. It is possible that it will be accepted elsewhere, and even generally, but not for the present.

Star Chamber.—A tribunal, made up of a committee of the King's Privy Council, instituted or revived in 1486. It was supposed to have almost unlimited powers and to be exempt from any rules or law. It had the right to inflict any form of punishment except death. The term is now applied to assemblies or committees or others who conduct their investigations and decide upon questions in secret.

Stars, Their Number

The number of visible stars is as follows:

Star-Spangled Banner.—The national song of the United States. Composed by Francis Scott Key on the night of September 13, 1814. "The cartel-ship Minden was anchored in sight of Fort McHenry, and from her deck Key saw, during the night of 13 Sept., 1814, the bombardment of that fortress. It was during the excitement of this attack, and while pacing the deck of the Minden with intense anxiety between midnight and dawn, that Key composed the song. It was first written on the back of a letter, and after his return to Baltimore copied out in full."—Harper's "Book of Facts."

Statistics of Population—United States, by States

Stature and Weights

There have appeared in public print, several tables, which, the compilers claim, are based upon Greek and other measurements. It is probable that few of these tables are authentic, and many of them are, undoubtedly, incorrect. The following table is compiled by Jay W. Seaver, M. D., for 20 years professor at Yale University, and is as nearly correct as possibility would admit. Dr. Seaver, however, does not claim absolute correctness. The second and third tables given are used quite generally in civil service examinations by local, state, and national governments, and apply largely to those seeking positions on the police force or the fire department

Minimum circumference of the Chest tolerable in applicants.

The stature shall not be below 5 ft. 6 in., nor the weight below that marked as its minimum accompaniment in the subjoined table.

Steam Engine.—The principle of the steam engine is very simple. Stripped of all technicality, it may be described as follows: Take a can with a height somewhat longer than its width, and close up both ends. Make a hole in the center of one of the ends large enough for the insertion of a rod about the diameter of a small poker. Fasten one end of this rod to the center of a disc which will fit closely into the can. Insert this disc in the can with the poker passing through the hole. The whole apparatus will be similar to that of a churn. Bore two holes in the sides of the can, at top and bottom. Allow steam to pass into the can through the first hole, which will force the disc to the other end of the can, and draw the poker with it. Then, introduce steam through the other hole. This will drive the disc to the other end of the can, and at the same time the steam entering the first hole will pass out. This gives a motion to the poker rod, which continues so long as steam is forced in and out. The rod, is, of course, connected with a crank which works on a shaft, and from this shaft power is transmitted. The steam is let into the cylinder automatically. A fly wheel is maintained where there is not more than one cylinder, and even where there is more than one, so as to create momentum, which carries the crank beyond its dead center. The modern steam engine makes from 100 to even 1,000 revolutions a minute. Its power is measured by its capacity to equal that of one or several horses, and is known as horse-power. Steam engines are made with a capacity of only a small fraction of horse-power, and up to several thousand. But usually, where great power is required, more than one cylinder is used, all of them working upon the same shaft The so-called turbine steam engine is similar to the ordinary turbine water wheel, except that steam, instead of water, is forced against it. See "Turbines."

Strikes.—The strike is an agreement upon the part of workmen to refuse to work until their demands are accepted. The first strike in the United States took place in New York City, in 1803, and was confined to sailors. In 1888, there were 697 strikes, involving over 210,000 employees. In 1886, the number of strikes increased 52 per cent., and in 1888 the increase was 22 per cent. In the early days nearly half of the strikes were in Pennsylvania. The great coal strike of 1902 was probably the most disastrous and largest strike on record. It involved about 150,000 men, with a loss of wages of nearly $40,000,000.

Sub Rosa.—The term "under the rose" implies secrecy. It had its origin B. C. 477, when Pausanias, commander of the fleet of Spartans and Athenians, was intriguing with Xerxes for the subjugation of Greece to Persia and for the hand of the king's daughter in marriage. The business was transacted in the "Brazen House," the roof of which was a garden making a bower of roses. Hence the term Sub Rosa.

Sugar Industry.—The United States consumes each year nearly 3,500,000 tons of sugar, or about 80 pounds per capita.

Sunday Schools.—The Sunday Schools of the United States have a membership of about 15,500,000, including teachers. The Sunday School membership of England and Wales is over 7,000,000. Connected with the Sunday Schools of the world are about 2,650,000 teachers and 26,500,000 scholars.

Talking Machines.—The talking machine, known by several names, including the phonograph, was originally invented by Edison. Unscientifically speaking, it consists of a disc similar to that used in the telephone, with a needle or point attached to the center of the underside of it. This needle or point fits into circular or cylindrical grooves, which are covered with tin foil or other malleable substance.

The vibrations of the voice or of music, which reach the disc, cause this needle or point to rise or fall, producing impressions upon the tin foil or other substance. After the record has been made, duplicates are produced in a substance largely made of rubber, which is placed on a rotary disc or cylinder that is turned automatically, the needle or point attached to the disc working into the grooves and rising with or following the impressions, which cause the plate or disc to vibrate. The process is wholly mechanical, and electricity is not used.

Tariff.—This word, meaning a schedule of duties on merchandise, imported or exported, is said to come from Tarifa, a town in Southern Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, where duties were once levied by the Moors on all ships passing in or out of the Straits of Gibraltar.

Telegraph.—The conception of the telegraph came to Professor Morse, in 1832, while he was making a voyage from Europe to America, and he at once began his experiments, which resulted in what may be considered one of the two greatest inventions or discoveries. After waiting about eight years, Congress reluctantly appropriated a sum sufficient to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The original conception of telegraphy belongs wholly to Professor Morse, but since its invention other scientists have invented improvements, including an apparatus which allows the sending of two messages each way, or four messages in all, over the same wire at the same time. The telegraphic code or alphabet, originally invented by Morse, remains practically intact. It consists of dots and dashes, and may be learned in a few hours, although expertness requires a year or more of practice. Unscientifically speaking, the telegraphic apparatus is extremely simple: it consists primarily of a piece of soft iron around which is wound several strands of insulated wire. During the time that electricity is passing through this wire, the soft iron becomes a magnet, but returns to its nonmagnetic character when electricity is not passing around it. A battery is used for the generating of electricity. The operator turns electricity into the wire by pressing a key. When the key is down, the electricity passes around the piece of soft iron and makes of it a magnet, which will draw iron or steel to it, the same as does any ordinary permanent magnet. Just above the end of the soft iron is placed a piece of metal, and as the key is pressed letting in the electricity, the iron (then a magnet) draws this metal to it, producing a slight sound or click. This piece of iron is held by a spring, and springs back into place when electricity is let out of the insulated wire surrounding the soft iron. If a message is to be sent a long distance, a relay is used so as to turn into the wire additional currents of electricity, because electricity loses some of its strength if carried over a very long wire, and a relay adds new or fresh currents from separate batteries. In this way, a message can be sent continuously for several thousand miles, which would be impossible without the use of relays. The process of sending several messages at the same time over the same wire is somewhat complicated. The result is obtained by using currents of electricity of different intensity, the currents not interfering with each other. The ocean cables are described under another heading.

Telephone.—The telephone is supposed to have been invented by Professor A. G. Bell, in 1875, but scientists recognize the probable invention of it, largely in theory, by the eminent scientists Dolbear, Gray, Edison, and possibly others. It is exceedingly difficult to describe, other than scientifically, the working of the telephone; and it cannot be done perfectly until electricity is fully understood. We know the result, but are not able to locate all of the causes. The original telephone consisted of a bar of magnetized steel of about the circumference of an ordinary poker, a few inches in length, around which was wound insulated wire. At one end of the magnet, and close to it, was placed a metallic disc about twice the circumference of a silver dollar and of the thickness of thin tin. Originally the same instrument was used both for sending and for receiving. Any sound, including the human voice, brought in direct contact with the disc, caused it to vibrate, and for some unknown reason these vibrations were transmitted through the magnet, and by the wires carried to another similar instrument. The sounds and voice were carried a short distance without the use of a battery, and the early telephones had ground circuits; that is, there was only one wire between the stations, the other wire being grounded by being attached to gas or other pipes, the electricity making half the circuit through the earth. Later on a battery was used, which increased the sending distances, but the ground wire remained for some time. The present telephone consists of the original telephone as a receiver, but with a transmitter into which the sender speaks his words. The mechanism of the transmitter is complicated and cannot be described except scientifically. Its use allows one to talk long distances, even to the extent of 2,000 miles. Non-technically speaking, then, the telephone consists of a magnet, insulated wire, and a disc, the vibration upon the disc being transmitted over the wire from the sending to the receiving station, electricity being used for conveying the vibrations or sound.

Eight billion, four hundred thousand and twenty-seven million conversations were held in this country last year over the wires of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., according to its annual report. The daily average was 26,310,000. The company now has telephone stations in 70,000 cities, towns, and hamlets, which is 5,000 more than the number of postoffices in the country, and 10,000 more than the number of railroad stations. Altogether there were 7,456,074 telephone stations of the company at the end of 1912.

Ten Great Religions.—James Freeman Clarke, in his book "Ten Great Religions," gives the following as the ten most important faiths of ancient and modern times:

1. Confucianism.
2. Brahmanism.
3. Buddhism.
4. Zoroastrianism.
5. Religion of Egypt.
6. Religion of Greece and Rome.
7. Teutonic and Scandinavian Religion.
8. Judaism.
9. Christianity.
10. Islâm.

Théâtre Français.—The most famous theatre in Paris, and, perhaps, in the world. It is situated in the Place du Palais Royal, and is the home of the Comédie Française. In 1900 it was destroyed by fire, but immediately rebuilt. The original building was erected in 1782, but was later much altered.

Thunder.—The sound of thunder is produced by the sudden rush of the air into the vacuum caused by the rapid passage of lightning through the air.

Ticket-of-Leave.—The English Government in 1854 issued a permit which allowed a convict his liberty before the expiration of his term. It was necessary for him to report to the police at stated times, and, if he committed any crime, his ticket-of-leave was recalled. The ticket-of-leave is similar to probation granted in the United States.

Time Difference.—When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 5:13 in Antwerp; about 5:49 in Berlin; about 5:13 in Brussels; about 1:02 in Buenos Ayres; about 10:49 in Calcutta; about 6:53 in Constantinople; about 4:30 in Dublin; about 4:34 in Liverpool; about 4:56 in London; about 5:05 in Paris; about 5:46 in Rome; about 6:57 in St. Petersburg. When it is 12 o'clock noon in New York City, it is 33-1/2 minutes earlier in Havana; about 11 hours and 28 minutes earlier in Hong Kong; about 9 hours and 24 minutes earlier in Melbourne; about 9 hours and 45-1/2 minutes earlier in Yokohama.

Tobacco Industry.—The United States grows about 905,000,000 pounds of tobacco a year, and over a million acres are used for growing tobacco. The value of the tobacco grown each year is about $85,000,000.

To Estimate the Weight of Hay.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the hay, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; if the hay is on the wagon or newly stored, divide the product by 540; but if it is well settled in the mow or stack, divide by 512. If the hay is baled, 270 cubic feet will weigh a ton. The number of cubic feet in a circular stack is found by multiplying the average circumference in yards by itself and this product by four times the height of the stack in yards; then point off the two right-hand figures and multiply the result by 27.

To Find Length of Day or Night.—At any time of the year add 12 hours to the time of the sun's setting, and from the sum subtract the time of rising for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising next morning for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent time.

To Measure Corn in the Crib.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the corn, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; this product multiplied by .63 will give the number of heaped bushels in the ear. Sometimes one and one-half bushels of ears make a bushel of shelled corn, and sometimes it requires two bushels, the amount required depending upon the size of the cob, shape of the ear, etc.

Tom Thumb.—Tom Thumb was probably the most famous dwarf in the world, not because of the absence of others of the same height, or less, but because he was exploited by the late P. T. Barnum. Tom Thumb, whose real name was Charles S. Stratton, was born in 1838, and died in 1883. In 1842 he was two feet in height and weighed sixteen pounds. In 1863 his height increased to thirty-one inches, and later to forty inches.

To Produce Different Colors.—The color printed in italics may be made by mixing the other two colors. Purple, red with light blue. Brown, red with black. Rose, lake with white. Drab, umber with white. Chestnut, white with brown. Chocolate, yellow with brown. Flesh Color, carmine with straw. Pearl, blue with lead color. Pink, carmine with white. Silver Gray, lamp black with indigo. Lead Color, lamp black with white. Bright Green, Paris green with white. Buff, yellow ochre with white. French White, white tinted with purple. Dark Green, black with chrome green. Brilliant Green, emerald green with white. Pea Green, chrome green with white. Orange, vermillion with chrome yellow. Straw Color, chrome yellow with white lead. Cream Color, white tinted with red and yellow. Ashes of Roses, white with tints of black and purple. French Gray, white tinted with black and purple. Olive, chrome yellow, blue, and black with red.

Trade Unions.—The trade union, although supposed to be of modern origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which, of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon's temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised. The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and organized labor and capital will work in harmony.

Trusts.—A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized by law continue in some other form.

Turbines.—The turbine has largely taken the place of the water wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against them will make them turn.

Type.—Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany, about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as 12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in 6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point. Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or to be printed from.

United States Flag.—On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress declared "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new constellation." In 1794 Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, "The flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." At that time the stars and stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently, it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April 4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time. It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or other announcement.

United States History in Brief

1492, August 3, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain.

1492, October 12, Columbus discovered America.

1607, May 13, the English made first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.

1609, September 11, Henry Hudson, commanding the "Half Moon," sailed into New York Harbor.

1620, November 11, the "Mayflower," containing the Pilgrims, arrived at Provincetown, Massachusetts.

1620, December 22, the "Mayflower" landed at Plymouth Rock, Plymouth, Massachusetts.

1690, September 25, the first American newspaper was published at Boston, Massachusetts.

1732, February 22, George Washington, first President of the Republic, was born.

1743, April 13, Thomas Jefferson was born.

1765, March 22, Passage of the Stamp Act.

1767, March 15, Andrew Jackson born.

1770, March 5, massacre and riot in the streets of Boston, Massachusetts.

1773, December 16, the famous Boston Tea party was organized.

1775, April 18, the ride of Paul Revere, warning inhabitants of the coming battles of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

1775, April 19, the battle of Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

1775, May 20, the first Declaration of Independence was signed at Mecklenburg, North Carolina.

1775, June 17, Battle of Bunker Hill, at Charlestown, Massachusetts.

1776, March 17, the British evacuated Boston.

1776, June 17, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American forces.

1776, July 4, The Declaration of Independence was formally signed at Philadelphia.

1776, August 27, Battle of Long Island.

1776, December 26, Battle of Trenton.

1781, October 19, Cornwallis surrendered his army, at Yorktown, Virginia.

1783, January 20, the United States and Great Britain agreed upon secession of hostilities.

1783, November 25, New York was evacuated by the British.

1789, April 30, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States.

1790, June 28, Washington, District of Columbia, was made the Capital of the United States.

1791, August 30, Issue of the first United States patent.

1792, April 2, United States Mint established at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

1793, September 18, Laying of the corner stone of the capitol, at Washington, District of Columbia.

1784, May 8, Congress established the Post-Office Department.

1796, September 17, President Washington issued his Farewell Address.

1799, December 14, death of President Washington.

1807, January 19, birth of General Robert E. Lee.

1807, August 11, first trial trip of a steamboat, by Robert Fulton, its inventor, on the Hudson River.

1809, February 12, birth of Abraham Lincoln.

1813, September 10, Perry's victory on Lake Erie.

1815, January 8, Battle of New Orleans.

1816, December 13, establishment, at Boston, Massachusetts, of the first Savings Bank in the United States.

1819, May 22, the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean sailed from Atlanta, Georgia.

1844, May 27, first telegraph message sent by Professor Morse, the inventor of telegraphy.

1846, April 23, beginning of the Mexican War.

1847, February 22, Battle of Buena Vista.

1847, September 14, capture of the city of Mexico by the United States Army.

1851, August 27, the Yacht "America" won the international cup race, at Cowes, England.

1858, August 16, the Old World and the New World connected by telegraphic cable.

1859, October 18, capture of John Brown, at Harper's Ferry, Virginia.

1860, December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union.

1861, April 12, Fort Sumter, South Carolina, bombarded.

1861, April 15, President Lincoln issued his first call for volunteers.

1861, July 21, Battle of Bull Run.

1862, March 9, Fight in Hampton Roads, Virginia, between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac."

1862, April 28, New Orleans evacuated.

1862, June 6, capture of Memphis, Tennessee.

1862, September 15, General Stonewall Jackson captured Harper's Ferry.

1862, September 17, Battle of Antietam.

1863, January 1, President Lincoln issued the Proclamation of Emancipation.

1863, February 25, passage of the National Bank Act.

1863, July 1 to 3, Battle of Gettysburg.

1863, September 19, Battle of Chickmauga.

1864, March 6 to 8, Battle of the Wilderness.

1864, June 19, the Warship "Kearsarge" sank the "Alabama."

1864, September 2, General Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia.

1865, April 9, General Lee surrendered at Appomattox.

1865, April 14, John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln.

1867, March 30, Treaty for the purchase of Alaska signed.

1869, May 10, completion of the Union Pacific Railroad.

1871, October 8, great fire at Chicago.

1881, July 2, President Garfield shot by Charles J. Guiteau.

1886, May 4, Haymarket riot at Chicago.

1889, May 31, great flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

1893, February 14, the Hawaiian Islands annexed to the United States.

1897, June 14, Venezuela boundary line treaty ratified by Congress.

1898, February 15, United States Battleship "Maine" blown up in Havana Harbor.

1898, April 21, Severance of diplomatic relations between Spain and the United States.

1898, April 27, Matanzas, Cuba, fired upon by American warships.

1898, May 1, Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila.

1898, May 6, United States fleet bombarded Santiago, Cuba.

1898, May 12, Admiral Sampson fired upon San Juan, Porto Rico.

1898, June 3, Hobson sank the Merrimac in the harbor of Santiago, that he might block the channel.

1898, June 22, first landing of the United States troops in Cuba.

1898, July 3, the Spanish fleet destroyed at Santiago.

1898, July 16, Santiago surrendered.

1898, August 13, Manila surrendered.

1898, November 28, end of the Spanish-American War.

1901, September 6, President McKinley killed by Leon Czolgolz.

1901, September 16, Hay-Pauncefote Canal Treaty ratified by Congress.

1902, July 4, Declaration of Peace with Philippine Islands, and amnesty granted to all insurgents.

1904, May 4, the United States took control of the Panama Canal.

University Extension.—A scheme for extending to people at large the advantages of a university education, by means of courses of lectures and classes in various important cities. The scheme originated at the University of Cambridge, England, in 1872, and was introduced into the United States in 1890.

University Settlements.—Homes established in the poorer parts of cities, where educated and cultured people may live and try to improve the lives of their neighbors. Lectures, studies, and various other devices are resorted to. The movement started in England in 1867, and appeared in New York in 1887, as a "Neighborhood Guild." University settlements are now found in all the chief cities of the United States.

Utopia.—An imaginary island, with an ideal commonwealth, the inhabitants of which enjoy perfect laws and institutions. It is described in Sir Thomas More's political romance, "De Optimo Reipublicae Statu, deque Nova Insula Utopia," published in Latin in 1516, and translated into English in 1551. His purpose was to describe his idea of social arrangements by which the people's most absolute happiness and improvement might be secured.

Vaccination.—Vaccination, a preventive of smallpox, was discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner of England. It consists of injecting into the blood a virus made from the sores or scabs of cows suffering from cowpox, or the virus may be taken from the sore coming from vaccination itself. Comparatively few people, properly vaccinated, can have the smallpox, and are largely exempt from any disease resembling it, except that which is known as varioloid, which is a mild form of smallpox. It is not known how long vaccination remains a preventive, but probably for seven years, when one should be vaccinated again. The prejudice against vaccination, which was very intense at its discovery, no longer exists except among a few. Practically every physician advocates it, and it is compulsory in some towns and cities. Deaths have occurred from it, but they are very infrequent.

Vacuum.—The perfect vacuum, which it is impossible to produce, is space without air or atmosphere. Vacuums are made by pumping all the air out of a receptacle or chamber. In a vacuum, everything falls at the same rapidity, as there is nothing to buoy it up, a feather descending as rapidly as lead shot.

Vedas.—Sacred writings of the Hindus, hymns, prayers, and liturgies, said to have been compiled by Vyasa about 1200 B. C. They are written in Sanskrit, and divided into four parts.

Voodooism.—A degraded form of religion prevalent among the negroes of Hayti and the Southern States of America. Supposed to be a relic of the religion of equatorial Africa.

Watered Stock.—It is said that the late Commodore Vanderbilt originated what is known as watered stock. Watered stock is capitalizing an industry at a figure in advance of its real value. For example: a railroad has tangible assets of $10,000,000, and an earning capacity sufficient to pay a 6 per cent. dividend on its capitalization; financial giants manipulate the stock and increase it to, say, $20,000,000, watering it to the extent of 100 per cent. In other words, the real value of the stock then is one-half of what it was in the first place. Stock watering has become epidemic, and is the cause of hundreds of thousands of financial failures. The stock waterers, however, as a rule, win, the public being the victims.

Wealth of the Nations.—The estimated wealth of the principal nations of the earth is given in billions: United States, 130; Great Britain and Ireland, 80; France, 65; Germany, 60-1/2; Russia, 40; Austria-Hungary, 25; Italy, 20; Belgium, 9; Spain, 5.4; Netherlands, 5; Portugal, 2.5; Switzerland, 2.4.

Weather Flags

The Weather Bureau maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture displays at its stations flags which indicate probable changes in the weather.

A white flag indicates clear or fair weather.

A blue flag, rain or snow.

A flag with the upper half white and the lower half blue, local rain or snow.

A black triangular flag indicates temperature.

A white flag with black square in center, a cold wave.

When the black triangular flag is placed above the white flag, the black flag or the white and blue flag, it indicates warmer weather; when below, colder.

When the black triangular flag is not displayed at all, the temperature is likely to remain stationary.

Flags are displayed by the Weather Bureau as storm warnings in the following manner:

Small Craft Warning: A red pennant indicates that moderately strong winds are expected.

Storm Warning: A red flag with a black center indicates that a storm of marked violence is expected.

The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction of the wind—white, westerly (from southwest to north); red, easterly (from northeast to south). The pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, from the southerly quadrants.

By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and a white light below a red light, westerly winds.

Hurricane Warning: Two red flags with black centers, displayed one above the other, indicate the expected approach of a tropical hurricane, or one of those extremely severe and dangerous storms which occasionally move across the Lakes and Northern Atlantic coast.

No night small craft or hurricane warnings are displayed.

Wedding Anniversaries.—First, cotton; Second, paper; Third, leather; Fourth, fruit and flowers; Fifth, wooden; Sixth, sugar; Seventh, woolen; Eighth, India rubber; Ninth, willow; Tenth, tin; Eleventh, steel; Twelfth, silk and fine linen; Thirteenth, lace; Fourteenth, ivory; Fifteenth, crystal; Twentieth, china; Twenty-fifth, silver; Thirtieth, pearl; Fortieth, ruby; Fiftieth, golden; Seventy-fifth, diamond.

Weights and Measures

LONG MEASURE

SQUARE MEASURE

DRY MEASURE

LIQUID MEASURE

TROY WEIGHT