AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT

CUBIC MEASURE

LAND MEASURE

CIRCULAR MEASURE

METRIC SYSTEM

MEASURES OF WEIGHT
(Unit Gramme)

MEASURES OF LENGTH
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BOARD AND TIMBER MEASURE

BOARD MEASURE

TIMBER MEASURE

WHAT TO DO IN EMERGENCIES

Many books and pamphlets have been written advising the layman what to do in a case of emergency, and in the absence of a physician or surgeon.

Much of the information presented is altogether too technical, and is not likely to be understood by the public at large.

The author has attempted to cover, in a few pages, the fundamentals of first aid to the injured, and has carefully avoided technical and medicinal terms. No amount of information, no matter how carefully or plainly written, can take the place of the physician or surgeon. Self-doctoring and -dosing is, or should be, considered a crime, and no one is justified in attempting to relieve any one suffering from accident or any other ailment, if it is of possible seriousness, unless a good physician or surgeon cannot be procured.

First and always, keep your head, and keep cool. Don't get excited. Work rapidly, but deliberately. If the injury or trouble is at all serious, summon a surgeon or physician immediately. If you are alone with the sufferer, it may not be safe for you to leave him, but unless he is in immediate danger, it is better to call a competent physician, even though you have to absent yourself from him for a few moments. If the accident occurs in a crowd, solicit some one who looks trustworthy, and request him to telephone or otherwise communicate with a doctor.

If you know the cause of the accident or trouble inform the physician in advance, so that he may be better prepared to meet it and bring with him instruments and remedies.

The patient or sufferer should be placed in a comfortable position, a doctor or surgeon summoned, and in the interval the layman may follow the instructions presented here. If he does so, no harm will be done, and in many cases suffering will be relieved, and death or serious illness prevented. But the author again, and most emphatically, urges the layman to send for a physician or surgeon, and to follow the instructions or information given in this chapter only as preliminary to the arrival of the doctor or surgeon, unless the injury be of slight consequence.

If possible, remove the patient to a quiet place, where there is plenty of air, and where the temperature is normal.

If there are many people about, request them to keep away.

Place the injured person in a comfortable position, usually upon his back, and straighten out his legs and arms. If the head is injured, better lift it above the level of the body; but if it is not, allow the body to lie on a level.

If the patient is breathing hard, it may be well to lift him into a sitting position. Loosen his collar, waist-band, and clothing. If he faints, his head should be slightly lower than his feet. If an arm or leg is injured, lift it slightly and place it upon a cushion, pillow, or other support.

If the one injured is unconscious, watch him very carefully. If he is vomiting, or that tendency is apparent, turn him over on one side so that the discharge will run out easily and not go into the lungs.

If he is wounded, cut away the clothing covering the wound, but don't remove any more than is necessary. If he has been burned, pour lukewarm water, containing a little saleratus or bicarbonate of soda, over the clothing before you remove it. If he is bleeding severely, stop the bleeding before dressing the wound. After the wound is dressed there is nothing for the novice to do, except bring the patient to consciousness, if unconscious, and remove him to a place of safety and comfort.

If the accident or injury be serious, or the patient is unconscious, it is well to request more than one bystander to summon a physician, because the first one sent may fail, or the physician he telephones to or calls upon may be unavailable.

Use the telephone, if there is one at hand or nearby, and tell the physician what you think is the matter with the sufferer or what caused the accident, that he may be better prepared to bring with him the instruments necessary.

If you are alone with the patient, and cannot notify a physician or surgeon without leaving the patient, you must use your best judgment; but you should make every possible effort to reach a physician at the earliest possible moment. Remain with the patient long enough to place him in a comfortable position, and to stop the flow of blood, if bleeding; then make all haste to notify a physician or surgeon.

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Johnson's First Aid Manual, published by Johnson & Johnson of New Brunswick, N. J., and to Jay W. Seaver, M. D., of New Haven, Conn., and recently of Yale University.

Accidents.—Convey the sufferer to a place of safety, and give him plenty of air. If a shock follows, follow instructions given for shock. Do not touch the wound with the bare hand. Wear absolutely clean gloves or wrap the fingers in clean cloth or gauze. Do not attempt to cleanse the wound. Summon a surgeon immediately.

Apparent Death.—Never assume that a person is dead because he appears to be. Summon a physician. A fairly good test of death is to hold the hand of the person apparently dead before a candle or other light, with the fingers stretched out, each touching the other. Gaze intently between the fingers, and if the person is alive, a red or pink color will undoubtedly be seen where the fingers touch each other. Another method is to take a cold piece of polished steel, like a razor blade or table knife, and hold before the mouth or nose of the person apparently dead. If moisture does not gather on it, it may be safe to assume that breathing has stopped; but these tests are not infallible.

Bandaging.—There are two kinds of bandages,—the roller bandage or the triangular or handkerchief bandage. They may be purchased at any drug store or be made on the spot in an emergency. The purchased bandages are made of gauze, or muslin, crinolin, elastic webbing, rubber, or other material. The roller bandages are absorbent, and are very thin and pliable. They should be placed next to the wound and hold the fluids. Muslin bandages are stronger than those made of gauze, and should be used for pressure and outside bandages. Bandages should be kept in a perfectly clean place, and always covered, either by being enclosed in a box or wrapped in paper. If an improvised bandage is used, care should be taken to use a clean cloth. The triangular bandage is made by cutting a piece of cloth about 36 inches square into two pieces diagonally. It can be purchased at a drug store, or any clean cloth can be used if it is of firm texture.

Baths.—Cold baths may be taken to reduce fever and in sunstroke and other cases when the temperature is high. It is well to have the temperature in the bath at 70° or 80° Fahrenheit, and to reduce the water until it reaches 60° or 65°. Tepid baths have a temperature of 80° or 90°, and warm baths are of a temperature from 90° to a little less than 100°. Hot baths may be used in case of shock, apparent drowning, depression, and similar troubles. The temperature of the water should vary from 98° to 110°. When the patient leaves the bath, he should be dried quickly and put to bed. Hot baths may produce fainting, and should be taken in the presence of an attendant. Do not guess at the temperature of the water; use a thermometer.

Bleeding.—Arterial blood, or blood coming from the arteries, is bright red, and is discharged in spurts or jets. Such bleeding is very dangerous, and unless a physician arrives almost immediately the patient is not likely to survive.

Venous blood, which comes from the veins, is of dark purple color and flows freely and steadily.

Capillary bleeding comes from injured small veins. It flows slowly, and such bleeding is dangerous only if it continues. Always summon a surgeon or physician, and put in a hurry call for him. Force the patient to lie down in a level position, preferably upon his back.

If the leg or arm is wounded, elevate it. Cut away the clothing quickly, so that it may be exposed. Press the bleeding places, but cover your finger with gauze or a clean handkerchief, or compress the part by using a strong cloth bandage.

If the bleeding comes from an artery, cover your finger with a few thicknesses of gauze or clean cloth, and press hard upon the wound and maintain the pressure, which may stop the bleeding. If the wound is large, crowd a lot of gauze into it, and push it in, then press on the flesh a little distance above the wound, that is, between the wound and the heart. This can be done by winding a bandage, a piece of rubber tubing, string, or rope, or a pair of suspenders may be used, above the wound.

If the arm or leg is crushed, do not press on the wound, but bring pressure to bear above it.

Bleeding from the Veins.—Lay a piece of gauze over the wound and bind it on with a firm bandage. Be very careful not to apply your naked fingers or hand to the wound unless you have washed them in some antiseptic, but even then it is better to cover your fingers with clean gauze or cloth. If the bleeding is very severe, apply cracked ice wrapped in gauze, and hard pressure below the wound. Varicose veins occasionally bleed. Elevate the arm or leg and bandage it very tightly, the bandage to be placed directly over the bleeding spot.

Bleeding from Capillary Veins.—As the blood oozes, and does not flow rapidly, expose the wound to the air for a short time, which will usually check it. The application of hot water is advisable, but warm water should not be used. Extremely cold water or cracked ice will stop some bleeding. If copious bleeding occurs around a tooth, it may be stopped by packing the place with plaster of Paris, or absorbent cotton may be used. In every case, keep the places warm. After the bleeding is stopped, give hot drinks, like hot tea, coffee, or milk, if much blood has been lost.

Broken Bones.—Do not attempt to set the break. Handle the patient carefully. Place him in a comfortable position and undress him, removing the clothing by cutting it to save time. If it is necessary to carry him a distance, improvise a splint made of wood or heavy pasteboard and fasten it around the broken part with bandages. Carry him to a physician or summon one at once, but let him lie quietly if a physician can reach him. It is well to have two splints, one on each side, to be held in place by the same bandages. If the arm is broken, bandage it and place it in a sling. In every case, summon a physician or carry the patient to one.

Chilblains.—Keep the feet warm and dry. Don't warm them at a fire or place them in hot water, but bathe them in cold water and rub with a dry towel. Apply turpentine, camphorated spirits, or oil of wintergreen.

Cleanliness

It is said that cleanliness is next to godliness. Good health is dependent upon the care of the body, and the body will not remain in a healthful state unless frequently bathed.

The fact that thousands of persons enjoy good health without even taking an infrequent bath, must not be used as an argument against regular bathing. These persons, if in health, live out of doors, and Nature seems to take care of them; but it is obvious that they would be healthier and stronger if they gave proper attention to bodily cleanliness.

The majority of city dwellers, and a large proportion of those living in the country, work indoors, and their health is dependent upon their personal cleanliness.

Opinions differ, and some hygienists do not consider the daily bath essential, but the majority of those who have studied the subject maintain that perfect health requires the daily bathing of the entire body.

Without the daily bath one does not begin his work refreshed or with exhilaration.

A scrub is not to be recommended more than once a week, but a bath should be taken daily, and the entire body rubbed with a dry towel, a bath towel to be preferred. Emersion in a tub of water is not necessary, although it is the best and easiest way of taking a bath, next to a shower bath. A sponge bath answers all purposes.

A cold plunge should not be taken without the advice of a physician. The shower bath is very refreshing. A hot bath is seldom advisable. It is better to have the water of a temperature not much higher than that of summer heat. A pure soap should be used, and care should be taken to rinse it from the body. The daily bath is the best preventive of colds. Comparatively few people who bathe daily suffer from more than transient colds.

The bath should not be taken in a draught. If the room is cold, work rapidly and use additional time for rubbing, continuing it until the skin glows.

The practice of partial bathing is not to be recommended. When you take a bath, take it all over.

If away from home, and sleeping in a hotel bed, which may have been occupied by a diseased person, it is well to go over the body carefully in the morning with an antiseptic soap. Every hotel, and all public conveyances, are laden with germs, and a bath will prevent many diseases.

A few drops of ammonia or a teaspoonful of borax placed in the water in which you bathe will remove the odor of perspiration, but ammonia should not take the place of good soap.

Clothing Afire.—Force the person afire to lie down and roll him over and over. Wrap him in a rug or blanket, or anything else at hand. Throw water upon him, but do not wait for water. Wrapping him in a blanket is sure to extinguish the flames. Under no circumstances allow the person afire to run about or out of doors.

Colds.—Use simple remedies, such as hot lemonade, but if the cold does not soon abate, consult a physician.

Diphtheria.—Consult your physician. Never go near a case of diphtheria or allow a dog, cat, or other animal to enter the sick-room. Be careful of every utensil, and do not allow any one else to use them until they have been washed in antiseptics. Never handle any clothing or other articles in a sick-room.

Disinfectants

The reader is warned against placing reliance upon any disinfectant, because it smells of carbolic acid, or has any other strong odor. Many of the advertised disinfectants are worthless, and some of them are merely deodorizers, which destroy smell and don't disinfect.

Sulphur or brimstone is probably the best fumigator. Sulphite of iron (copperas) is cheap and should be used for sewers and drains. Dissolve a pound and a half in a gallon of water. Two parts of sulphate of zinc to one part of common salt, dissolved in a gallon of water, is a good disinfectant for clothing, bed linen, etc.

Carbolic acid is an excellent disinfectant, but is efficacious only when used at considerable strength, 3 to 5 per cent. Its strong odor suggests qualities which do not exist, if it is much diluted.

There are many disinfectants upon the market, many of them being advertised to be efficacious. Some of them are thoroughly reliable, but others are almost worthless. I would advise the reader not to purchase or use a disinfectant which is not recommended by a reliable physician.

Disinfecting Cellars, Yards, Cesspools, etc.—Use a solution made of 60 pounds of copperas dissolved in a barrel of water. Sprinkle freely over cellar and put a pailful in a cesspool.

Disinfecting the Sick-Room.—Plenty of fresh air and cleanliness are to be first considered. The clothing, bed linen, and towels should be washed in a tub containing a zinc chloride solution, and the water should be boiling hot. A solution of copperas and water should be immediately placed in all vessels containing discharges.

Dislocations.—The novice should never attempt to treat a dislocation. All he can do is to place the patient in a comfortable position, using a sling or cushion to support the part injured. A physician should be summoned.

Dog Bites.—Wash the wound with antiseptic soap or pure soap and water, with borax dissolved in it to the strength of a teaspoonful to a pint. Hydrophobia occurs very infrequently, and many dogs, supposed to be mad, are suffering from some other ailment; but a surgeon should be summoned in all cases whenever it is possible to do so. The bite of a rat, cat, or other animal is not generally dangerous, but the wound should be washed with borax and water, as above. Better summon a surgeon. Suck the wound vigorously before applying washes. There is no danger to the person sucking a wound of this nature, unless the skin on his lips or in his mouth is cracked or bleeding, but he may wash his mouth with borax water if he feels uneasy about it.

Drowning

If the person is conscious tell him that you will save him, which will prevent him from losing his nerve. If you swim out for him, and he is struggling, seize him by the hair and turn him over on his back. Swim on your side, towing him along as you would a log of wood. You may hold his head with one arm, but do not attempt to support his entire body. If he struggles violently, hold his head under water until he is unconscious, so that you can better handle him. Loosen his clothing, drain water out of lungs by inverting body, clean out his mouth, and pull his tongue forward. Immediately begin artificial respiration, each movement to last from four to five seconds. Apply warmth and rubbing, and when he is conscious give him hot water, coffee, or lemonade. Artificial breathing is of greatest consequence. Do not give up. Many persons have been resuscitated after many hours of incessant labor. Artificial respiration may be performed in the following way:

First—Immediately loosen the clothing about the neck and chest, exposing them to the wind, except in very severe weather. Get the water out of the body, first by tickling throat with a feather, or applying ammonia to the nose; give a severe slap with the open hand upon the chest and soles of feet; if no immediate result, proceed as follows:

Second—Lay the body down in the open air with the head hanging down and with its weight on the stomach across any convenient object, such as a keg, box, boat timber, or your knees. Open the mouth quickly, drawing the tongue forward with handkerchief or cloth to let the water escape. Keep the mouth clear of liquid. To relieve the pressure on the stomach, roll the body gently from side to side and then back on the stomach. Do this several times to force the water from the stomach and throat.

Third—Lay the body on the back, make a roll of a coat or any garment, place it under the shoulders of the patient, allowing the head to fall back. Then kneel at the head of the patient.

Open patient's mouth and place some small object between teeth.

With tongue pliers or fingers covered with gauze or cloth, grasp his tongue and draw it out. Tie it down to his chin with cloth or rubber band.

Grasp the patient's arms at the middle of the forearms, fold them across his stomach, and raise them over his head to a perpendicular position, drawing them backward, straight, then forward overhead to the sides again, pressing the arms on the lower part of the ribs and side, so as to produce a bellows movement upon the lungs. Do this about fifteen times a minute.

Apply smelling salts, camphor, or ammonia to the nostrils to excite breathing.

Fourth—On signs of life, or when breathing is restored, remove the clothing, dry the body, wrap the patient in warm blankets or hot cloths. To encourage circulation briskly rub his limbs under the blankets toward the heart; brandy or aromatic spirits of ammonia may be given in small doses, with care to avoid strangulation.

Another Method

Another simple method of restoring breathing, one that is being rapidly adopted, is that known as the Schafer, or prone, method. It has the great advantage that it can be performed by one man alone. This method has just been endorsed as the preferable one by a commission representing the American Medical Association, the National Electric Light Association, and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

First—Lay patient on stomach with his head to side and withdraw his tongue, which itself then will hang out if teeth are held apart with small object. The operator then kneels astride the patient's thighs and with his hands across the lower ribs swings his body back and forth rhythmically, pausing about two seconds as his weight falls upon and is removed from patient. This movement is to be continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute.

To Prevent Drowning.—The human body weighs, in the water, about one pound; that is, it is approximately one pound heavier than the water which it displaces. A stool, chair, or small box or board will overcome the tendency to sink and will keep the head above water. The feet, and the hand which is not clinging to an object, should be used as paddles. Every one should learn to swim. If he can take only a few strokes, the chances of death by drowning are small, for he is likely to be able to reach something which will support him. So much do I believe in the necessity of knowing how to swim, that I consider it a crime not to understand this art.

Electrical Accidents.—Immediately shut off the current, but do not handle the wire with your naked hands. If rubber gloves are not handy, cut the wire with an ax or knife, with a piece of woolen cloth wrapped around the handle. If you pull the sufferer away from the wire, do not touch him with your bare hands, but cover them with woolen cloth, or wear rubber or woolen gloves, or remove him by the use of a rope. The ordinary electric shock will not cause death unless the patient continues to receive it. Summon a doctor at once. Place the patient in the open air, with something under his shoulders. Loosen his clothing, open his mouth, and pull out the tongue. Clear the mouth from saliva. Force air into his lungs by pressing the base of the ribs about once in four seconds, then attempt to resuscitate him as you would a drowning person.

Emergencies with Children.—If the child suddenly suffers from vomiting, purging, and prostration, send for a doctor at once. In the meantime place him in a hot bath and then carefully dry him with a warm towel and wrap in warm blankets. If the hands and feet are cold, apply hot water bottles to the feet and hands. A poultice made of flaxseed meal (3/4) and mustard (1/4) should be placed over the body. Five drops of brandy in a teaspoonful of water may be given every 15 minutes. For sudden diarrhœa, administer one teaspoonful of castor oil or of spiced syrup of rhubarb. Allow the child to drink freely of cold water that has been boiled. Always summon a physician.

Emergency Medicines ..

The writer would emphatically discourage self-medication and dosing, and would oppose the taking of medicines of any kind, except the simplest remedies, without the advice of a physician. Hundreds of thousands of people have been made sick, because the wrong medicine was administered to them, and many more have taken medicine when they didn't need it.

The following emergency medicines are presented, with a distinct understanding that they should not be used except in simple cases:

Ammonia.—What is known as ammonia water, or liquor of ammonia, or as spirits of hartshorn, or hartshorn, is of several strengths and is highly irritating and poisonous if taken internally. Applied externally, if of considerable strength, it will cause blisters and pain. Ammonia should not be applied to an open wound or irritated surface, except in case of snake bites or stings of insects, where it is intended to neutralize the poisons. The vapor of ammonia water, inhaled through the nostrils, affects the nervous system and may be used in fainting or epilepsy, but always with caution, for a strong preparation of ammonia applied to the nose may produce a violent shock. It is better to saturate a handkerchief or wad of cotton and hold it a short distance from the nostrils. The buyer is cautioned against the use of the strongest ammonia water.

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia.—This is a stimulant, and may be used in cases of sick headache, hysteria, cholic, or fainting, in doses of from 10 to 30 drops in sweetened water.

Arnica.—Tincture of arnica is supposed to be of value in accidents, and especially efficacious for sprains and bruises. It has some value, mainly from the alcohol it contains and partly because it is applied with friction. It is a poison, and never should be taken internally. For external use it should not be applied at full strength, as it is apt to cause inflammation if the skin is tender.

Bicarbonate of Soda.—Bicarbonate of soda, commonly known as baking soda or saleratus, is distinct from sal soda or washing soda. It is of great value in the treatment of burns, and may be used as an antidote in poisoning by acids.

Camphor.—Camphor is purchased in gum or in liquid form. It never should be taken internally, except by advice of a physician. Nor should it be applied in its full strength directly to the wounds or to irritated or inflamed surfaces.

Ginger.—The essence or extract of ginger is a very popular remedy for trouble with the digestive organs, bowel complaints, etc., and should be taken in doses of from 10 to 40 drops in sweetened water, milk, or other liquid. It never should be used habitually, because it may establish a drug habit; nor should large doses be taken to check diarrhœa, as it is often inadvisable to too rapidly check the discharges.

Glycerin.—Glycerin may be used for burns, and, mixed with equal parts of rose water, it is a good lotion for chapped hands or lips, but it is irritating to the skin of some people.

Peppermint.—The essence of peppermint may be used for stomach-ache and bowel complaints, the usual dose being from 10 to 20 drops on sugar or in sweetened water. Oil of peppermint should not be taken, except when prescribed by a physician.

Turpentine.—Turpentine is the base of most liniments, and it has some value, but mustard plasters are safer. Turpentine is inflammable, and never should be applied near an open fire. Turpentine should not be given internally, unless prescribed by a physician.

Whisky.—Whisky, brandy, wine, and all other spirits should be used sparingly. They are likely to do more harm than good. Hot water, hot coffee, hot tea, or aromatic spirits of ammonia are to be preferred. Children should never be given spirituous liquids, except in extreme cases, and then only 10 to 20 drops in water.

Witch Hazel or Hamamelis.—Used as a remedy for sprains, wounds, and swelling. It is a mild application for chapped hands, and used by the laity for burns, scalds, cuts, etc. It is not irritating, and is a good substitute for arnica. Its use externally is absolutely safe.

Vaseline.—It is to be recommended for burns, scalds, etc. It is nonirritating and is not poisonous. It can be used frequently.

Cold Cream.—A perfectly safe article to be used for chapped hands and lips, and skin roughness.

Emetics and Stimulants.—In practically all cases, and where poison has entered the stomach, it is well to empty the stomach immediately. If a stomach pump cannot be procured, an emetic should be administered. Doctors would administer ipecac, apomorphine, sulphate of zinc, tartar emetic, and other drugs, but none of them are likely to be available before the physician arrives. When notifying the physician tell him, if possible, the kind of poison taken, so he may be prepared. A dessert-spoonful of ground dry mustard in a glass of warm water is likely to produce vomiting. Follow the first dose with a second one. Then push the forefinger down the throat as far as possible, that the patient may vomit. Dissolve a teaspoonful of salt in water and give to the patient, or administer a teaspoonful of ipecac every few minutes to a child, and a tablespoonful to an adult. Follow the dose with a glass of water and then insert the forefinger in the throat. One who has taken opium does not vomit easily and strenuous efforts should be made to produce vomiting. If one emetic does not work, give another, and keep on repeating it.

Exercise

Physical exercises are absolutely essential to health. The working man, however, is likely to obtain enough of it from his daily action, but those of sedentary habits, especially those who work indoors, will not receive sufficient exercise from their labor.

While the gymnasium is to be recommended, and while it has done much to make weak people strong, I would not advise any one to take more than very simple gymnasium exercises without the advice of a physician. Exercises may be taken in the bedroom, with the use of light dumb bells, or without the use of any apparatus at all.

Walking is the best of all, for it can be enjoyed by those in poor health or physically weak. It takes one out of doors, and exercise out of doors is far better than that taken in a closed room. If you exercise at home, open all of the windows.

Every one should walk at least two miles a day in the open air, unless he is very weak. Select a companion, as exercise is more efficacious if enjoyed and is not mere exercise by itself. Take long breaths in the open air every morning. Overexercise, and much of that practiced by athletes, injure the heart and work opposite from the intention. No strenuous exercise should be taken after mid-life without the advice of a physician. Any good doctor will prescribe a course of exercises for you at a nominal fee, most of them not charging more than a dollar for advice. Then, those who exercise need more food and a different kind of food from that required by those who do not exercise.

As cases differ, it is inadvisable for me to prescribe proper food. Consult your physician.

Extinguishing Fires from Coal Oil.—Do not attempt to smother the flame by water. Smother it with a carpet or cloth.

Fainting

Ordinary fainting is distinct from that which occurs from shock or collapse, the latter following serious injuries, while fainting is common with some people, and may not be serious.

Those who are subject to frequent fainting spells should consult a physician that he may locate the cause.

If fainting is caused from any disease of the heart, or from a weak heart, death may follow, and such persons should be under the care of a physician.

When fainting occurs, place the patient on his back with his head as low or lower than the body. Raise the legs. He should have plenty of fresh air. If fainting occurs in a crowd, ask the spectators to move away. If in-doors, open all doors and windows, loosen the clothing, and sprinkle water upon the face, at the same time applying smelling salts or spirits of camphor held close to the nose, but not touching it. The body may be rubbed to assist the circulation. If the person does not quickly revive, apply gentle heat or a mustard plaster to the pit of the stomach. When he recovers give him hot tea or coffee, and never more than a moderate amount of alcoholic stimulants. Keep him in a reclining position for some time after he has recovered.

Feeding an Invalid.—If the illness is at all serious, consult a physician. He will tell you what and what not to give the patient in the way of food. Never cook the food in the presence of the invalid, and keep the smell of cooking away from him. Don't eat in his presence, as it may annoy him. Serve everything attractively, with spotless napkin, table cloth, and ware. Be careful not to spill anything. Hot articles should be served very hot, and cold ones very cold, as lukewarm viands are not acceptable. Everything brought into the sick-room should be covered with dishes or napkins. Better bring in too little than too much, more to be served if the patient desires it.

Fire in the House.—When the house is afire cover the head, if possible, with a wet cloth, or dry one if there is no facility for wetting it, cutting holes for the eyes. Creep on the floor and don't stand up or walk, for the air is clearer next to the floor, as smoke rises. Unless there are plenty of exits, a knotted rope should be attached to a staple. It is easier to climb down a knotted rope than one which is smooth. If necessary to jump from an upper story, throw out a mattress or something else which is soft, and attempt to land upon it. When at a hotel or boarding house, ascertain the means of exit before retiring.

Fits.—Generally speaking, the treatment should be similar to that given to one who has fainted. If the patient is hysterical, apply mustard plasters or ice to the soles of his feet and the wrists, but do not dash water in the face or use strong emetics or heroic measures. If the fit is caused by epilepsy (in this case the person is rigid), do not attempt to stop the patient from struggling. Lay him on his back with his head somewhat raised, and loosen his clothing. If necessary, hold his arms and legs gently, but do not use force. Place a stick or knife handle between the teeth to prevent biting the tongue. Always summon a physician.

Frost Bite.—Never place the patient near a fire. Undress him carefully and pack frozen parts with cloths wet with ice water. Rub adjacent parts vigorously. Administer hot coffee or tea. If breathing appears to have stopped, treat him as you would one apparently drowned. When the patient begins to revive, place him in a warm, but not a hot, room, cover him with blankets, and rub him with a cloth wrung out of hot water; give him the ordinary stimulants, but not alcoholic ones.

Fumigating a Sick-Room.—Formalin is probably the best fumigator. Place the articles to be fumigated in a closed room, and pour formaldehyde over towels or bed linen and place on the floor. The room should remain closed for 24 hours. A room containing 100 square feet of floor surface requires at least a pint of formaldehyde.

Getting Things into the Eye, Nose, Ear, etc.

Eye.—Sometimes complications result of a most serious nature. A physician should be sent for immediately. In the interval the following directions may be followed: Articles like cinders, dust, and other small objects may be removed from the eye, if one has a steady hand; but the eye should not be rubbed, and should be kept closed, except when one is trying to remove the foreign substance. The tears by themselves will often wash out ordinary dust or cinders. If the substance is hidden from view, one or two grains of whole flaxseed may remove it. Catch the upper lid by the lashes and pull away from the eyeball over the lower lid, holding it there for a moment, and request the patient to blow his nose vigorously. Visible articles may be removed with a piece of gauze on the hand, or an absolutely clean cloth; but don't touch the eye with the finger. As the eye is a very delicate organ, the novice should not attempt to operate upon it.

Nose.—Blow the nose very hard, and close one side of the nostril by pressing your finger against it. Tickle the nose or give snuff to excite sneezing. Sometimes the article will be removed if the patient takes a long breath and closes his mouth, then give him a sharp blow on the back. If the body is not discharged, call a physician.

Ear.—There is great danger in tampering with the ear. Never insert needles or pins in an attempt to remove foreign substances. Better send for a physician. If live insects enter the ear, pour a small quantity of sweet oil or glycerin into the ear and very gently syringe it with warm water.

Throat.—Send for a physician immediately, and tell him what you think the matter is, so he may bring the necessary instruments. If there is no difficulty in breathing, wait for the physician. Slap the person on the back when the body is bent forward with face downwards, which will cause him to cough. Elevate him so that his head is lower than his body and slap him on the back while in this position.

Getting Wet.—Many colds are contracted on account of exposure to rain and moisture. Unless able to change your clothes, keep moving. It is said that very few colds are contracted while one is exercising.

Headaches.—Under no circumstances take a headache powder, or any drug whatsoever, without the advice of your physician. Many headache powders contain dangerous drugs, which work upon the heart, sometimes causing death. Headaches almost invariably come from a cause not located in the head itself. Do not attempt to cure it yourself. The headache powder may relieve the headache temporarily at the expense of the system.

Hiccoughs.—Drink a glass full of cold water as rapidly as possible. Breathe deeply. If the hiccoughs continue, call a physician.

How to Avoid Accidents

Never cross the street without looking both ways.

Do not get off of a car or other vehicle while it is in motion.

Never thrust your head or arms out of the car or other vehicle.

When it is lightning, avoid trees and metallic articles.

Never allow firearms to be lying about. Have some one place for them and be sure that no one can get at them.

Move quickly when it is cold; and when any part is frozen, do not go near the fire, but rub with snow.

Always change wet clothing as soon as possible, and keep moving until you have opportunity to change.

Never walk on a railroad track.

Do not light a fire with kerosene or other inflammable fluid.

Never enter a cellar or anywhere else where gas is escaping with a light in your hand.

Under no circumstances touch a wire hanging in the street.

Maintain a medicine chest containing all of the common remedies, but don't select them without the advice of your physician. Mark each bottle plainly, with directions under the label.

Never take medicine without looking at the label beforehand.

Illuminating Gas.—Summon a physician, and before he arrives proceed as follows: Remove the patient into fresh air and walk him around. Place his arms about your shoulders, and if there are two rescuers place one arm around the shoulders of each. A glass of Weiss beer should be given while the patient is walking, as it removes gas from the stomach. In five minutes give half a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in a third of a glass of water. Repeat this dose every 15 minutes until four doses have been given. The neck of the beer bottle may be forced into the patient's mouth.

Infectious Diseases.—It is now generally supposed that all contagious and communicable diseases are contracted by the germs which pass into the body or system. These germs are so small that millions of them may enter the body through the nose, throat, and skin. They do little or no harm to a healthy person, for the healthy body is opposed to their growth, but if one is weak, or suffering from a slight cold, or is depressed, they may multiply and cause diseases. These germs may be widely scattered,—in the clothes, bedding, carpets, and in the hair and skin. They cling to walls and ceilings and they will multiply on almost any kind of food. No one can wholly prevent coming into contact with them, but he can, if he will, avoid most of the contagious diseases by never sitting down in the sick-room, especially avoiding the bed, and keeping away from the walls and furniture. He should wash his hands with antiseptic soap after handling the patient. Exercise regularly in the open air. Nurses should wear washable dresses, which are frequently changed and a washable cap should cover their hair. When in the sick-room do not approach the patient near enough to catch his breath. Do not touch with your lips any food, dish, or utensil which has been in the sick-room. Do not eat or drink in the sick-room. Wear no clothing that the patient wore before being taken sick. Never touch the sick person if your hands are sore or scratched, and be sure to wash them after contact with him. Never allow the dishes used by the patient to be used by any other unless they are very carefully washed and scalded in boiling water. All articles of food not eaten by the patient should be burned, and milk and food should never be allowed to stand in the sick-room. All bodily discharges should be immediately removed and covered with disinfecting solution, and the vessels should be washed with antiseptics before being brought back into the room.

Lockjaw.—Do not attempt to cure it. Consult your physician. It will probably be fatal.

Mustard Plasters.—Plasters occasionally are efficacious, but most give more apparent than real relief. They should not be used indiscriminately or without the advice of a physician.

Neuralgia.—This is often incurable, but may be relieved. Certain liniments are efficacious, but are not to be recommended indiscriminately. Better consult your physician.

Poison

Poisons taken into the system through the mouth, and not through the blood, require a different treatment.

Poisons may be classified as follows: 1. Irritant, in which the symptoms appear entirely at the location of the poison. 2. Systemic, in which the poison affects the system at large in addition to producing local irritation. 3. Narcotic or sleep-producing. 4. General, in which there is no local irritation.

In the first mentioned, it is best not to cause vomiting. Give dilute acids to neutralize alkalis, and dilute alkalis to neutralize acids. Then administer oil, raw egg, or flour and water. Small doses of opiates may be given to quiet the pain, and whisky or other spirituous liquor to relieve weakness.

In the second class (except for arsenic or similar poisoning) no emetic should be given. The poison may be counteracted by bland doses of oil, flour, and water, white of eggs; and stimulating drinks should be given to counteract depression.

In the third class, make strenuous effort to produce vomiting, then give strong coffee or other stimulating drinks, and make every effort to keep the patient awake, even if you have to keep him walking.

Fourth class. Give emetics, and follow with stimulating drinks to relieve weakness and pain. The patient should be allowed to rest.

Poisoning.

Poisoning by Acids.—For sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, and acetic acids give immediately a solution of baking soda or magnesia, chalk, lime, soap-suds, or chalk tooth powder, followed by raw eggs, milk, or sweet oil.

For Carbolic Acid or Creosote.—Give alcohol and, immediately, castor oil, sweet oil, raw eggs, or milk, followed by an emetic.

For Oxalic Acid.—Administer lime, chalk, or magnesia. Lime may be scraped from the wall or ceiling and dissolved in water, but don't use soda, potash, or ammonia.

For Prussic Acid.—Generally the patient dies immediately, but if he is still living, do not stop to give emetics, but administer stimulants. Apply hot and cold douches and use artificial respiration.

For Aconite Poisoning.—Wash the stomach with a stomach tube and avoid emetics. Use stimulants. Apply warmth to the extremities and place mustard plasters over the heart and legs. If the patient is insensible, use artificial respiration.

For Camphor.—Give emetics, oils, and eggs. Apply warmth to the extremities.

For Chloroform.—If caused by inhalation, resort to artificial respiration and apply friction. Place the patient in the fresh air, keeping the head very low. Alternate hot and cold applications. If it occurs from internal use, administer large doses of bicarbonate of soda in water. Administer artificial respiration if the patient is insensible.

For Nux Vomica.—Tobacco, chewing or smoking, and animal charcoal, dissolved in water. Follow with emetics. Use artificial respiration when necessary.

For Opium.—Administer an emetic, such as mustard or ipecac. Apply water to the head, face, and spine. Give strong coffee, but do not give alcoholic stimulants. Keep the patient aroused by walking, whipping, or other means. Use artificial respiration if necessary.

For Arsenic.—Give emetics immediately, including draughts of hot, greasy water or salt and water. Administer in large doses magnesia or lime scraped from the walls or ceilings. Give castor oil, sweet oil, or equal parts of sweet oil and lime water, or raw eggs. Use stimulants well diluted.

For Corrosive Sublimate.—Administer an emetic and large doses of white of eggs, milk, mucilage, barley water, or flour and water. Force the patient to swallow large quantities. Use the stomach pump.

For Belladonna.—Give emetics and stimulants. Apply warmth to extremities and mustard plasters to the feet. Use artificial respiration if necessary.

For Poisonous Mushrooms.—Give emetics, castor oil, stimulants, and apply heat.

Pulse.—The average rate of the pulse in adults is 76 beats every minute; but it varies according to age. At birth it is from 130 to 140; 1st year, 115 to 130; 2d year, 100 to 115; 3d year, 95 to 105; between 7 and 14, 80 to 90; between 14 and 21, 75 to 80; between 21 and 60, 70 to 75; in old age, from 75 to 80. The female pulse is from 10 to 15 beats quicker than that of the male of the same age. To count the pulse, place the finger over the artery at the wrist; count the beats for 15 seconds, multiply this by four, and the result is the number of beats a minute. Do not use the thumb, as there is a sort of pulse in it which interferes with counting.

Rheumatism.—So far as is known, there is no certain cure for rheumatism, notwithstanding the many nostrums that are advertised as sure cures. Rheumatism may be helped by avoiding meat and other nitrogenous foods, confining the diet to vegetables and similar foods, and drinking water freely. Rheumatism, however, is too serious to be treated by other than a physician.

Scalds and Burns

Place the patient in a comfortable and safe place and remove the clothing rapidly with a knife or scissors. If it sticks, cut away as much as is necessary, but don't pull it off. Clothing may sometimes be removed by sprinkling with water or oil. Do not expose the surface of the burn or scald to the air. Cover as quickly as possible with flour or vaseline and wrap a cloth about it wet with a solution of water and common baking soda.

If the clothing is afire, force the person to lie down immediately, wrap him in a blanket or other piece of cloth, preferably of woolen. Do not allow him to run around or expose himself to a draught. Fire may be extinguished by slapping the burning parts with a cloth, or throwing water upon the person, but the wrapping process is better, because it immediately smothers the fire, and water is not always available.

Slight scalds or burns may be relieved by the application of a solution made of a pint of water with one teaspoonful of baking soda or saleratus. Apply with a piece of lint, and then cover the burn or scald with absorbent cotton, held in place by a bandage. If the burn or scald is severe, apply sweet oil, olive oil, vaseline, or the white of an egg. If these are not handy, cover the spot with starch or use damp earth.

Burns caused by lye, and other alkaline chemicals, should be covered with water, then with vinegar, and then treated as those by fire.

Burns caused by acids and vitrol should be soaked with water and thoroughly washed with soda (saleratus) or lime water. Chalk or tooth powder may be used when saleratus is not available.

Carbolic acid burns may be treated with strong alcohol.

Burns of the mouth or throat coming from the drinking of hot fluids, may be treated by taking oil or the white of an egg into the mouth and allowing it to run into the throat if the throat is affected. Vinegar should be used for burns in the mouth coming from caustic potash and ammonia. If the burn is serious, summon the doctor.

Burns caused by gunpowder should be treated the same as are ordinary burns.

Shock or Collapse

Shock or collapse frequently occurs after serious accidents. It can be foretold generally, because the skin is cool and clammy, and it is usually accompanied with vomiting or rapid pulse, irregular breathing, or sighing, and the eyelids may be heavy, the pupils dilated, and the mind is not active. Insensibility frequently accompanies a shock. Send for a surgeon or doctor immediately. Place the patient in a warm bed, if possible, cover him with blankets, and allow his head to lie low. Remove all clothing, cutting it to save time. Wrap bandages around wounds or broken bones.

Hot cloths, or hot water bags, or a hot brick wrapped in cloth should be applied to the region of the heart, the pit of the stomach, and the feet. If wet cloths are used, wring them out frequently in hot water and re-apply them. It is not necessary to use heat sufficient to burn the skin. Under no circumstances apply heat to the head.

If possible, force the patient to drink hot water, hot tea, hot coffee, or hot milk. Malted milk is excellent, but it should be hot. Whisky and other alcoholic liquor should not be given, except by the advice of a doctor. Half a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in water may be given every 15 minutes for four doses, but not more. Stimulants should not be given after the patient begins to recover.

Vomiting may be stopped or relieved by administering a little brandy mixed with cracked ice.

If the skull is injured or there is concussion of the brain, with or without the appearance of apoplexy or severe breathing, do not administer a stimulant.

Sleeplessness.—Insomnia rapidly lowers the vital forces. It is due to several causes, including mental worry, indigestion, physical overexercise, and functional or organic diseases. Insomnia may be considered a natural warning of coming ailment. The cause should be located, and a good physician should be consulted. Sleep is encouraged by exercise in the open air and by taking hot drinks just before retiring. Hot malted milk is excellent; but solid food should not be taken just before retiring. Mild gymnastic exercise may be taken before an open window, but drugs should never be administered without the advice of a physician.

Snake Bite.—Do not waste valuable time to kill the snake. If the bite is venomous, rip open the clothing so that the wound will be exposed. Tie a handkerchief or rope around the arm or leg, above the bite. It should be drawn so tight that the circulation will be stopped or retarded. The use of a stick or pencil will assist in giving pressure. With a knife, open the holes made by the snake's fangs and cut around the wound liberally, being careful not to sever an artery. Let the blood run freely. Poison is sometimes removed by sucking a wound, but one should not do this if his lips are chapped or bleeding. The wound should be washed with soda solution and large doses of whisky or brandy should be administered. Call a surgeon immediately.

Sore Throat.—Sore throat may be merely local or be a forerunner of diphtheria. Better consult a physician.

Sprains.—Most sprains are serious, and a doctor should be called at once, but before he arrives the following simple treatment may be applied. Sprains twist and tear the ligaments and may rupture the small blood vessels. The flow of blood may be checked by application of cold or heat or by pressure. If the ankle or foot is sprained, wrap a folded towel tightly around the part sprained and then apply moist heat and elevate the leg. Immerse the foot in water as hot as can be borne and keep on adding hot water for about 20 minutes, so that the temperature may not be lowered; then apply a bandage, but continue the bathing treatment. Cold applications may be used instead of hot water, and should be applied by dipping cloths in ice water frequently, and wrapping them about the parts injured.

Stings of Poisonous Insects or of scorpions, centipedes, etc., should be treated with hartshorn, ammonia, after which cold water or cracked ice should be applied. Do not fail to call a surgeon or doctor. If the sting remains in the wound, remove it either by pressure on the skin or with a knife. The stings of common insects, such as mosquitoes, ants, etc., should be treated with a weak solution of ammonia, salt water, or a cloth wet with water in which a teaspoonful of baking soda to a pint of water is dissolved, may be bound on it.

Suffocation.—Always summon a physician. Place the patient in the air, remove all tight clothing about the neck and chest, and apply artificial respiration. Apply hot water in bottles to the body. Put mustard plasters above the heart, on the soles of his feet, and on his wrists. When the patient shows signs of recovering, give mild stimulants. If the patient is in a close room, open the windows and all of the doors. In rescue work do not open windows, but smash out all of the glass. In entering a room full of smoke, cover the mouth with a handkerchief wet with water or vinegar and water. Crawl on the floor, as the smoke is less dense near the floor. The rescuer should attach a rope to himself, so he can be pulled from his dangerous position.

Sunstroke.—Indications of sunstroke or heat prostration are a slow but full pulse, very labored breathing, and the skin is hot and dry, the face usually red, and the person affected is unconscious. Remove the sufferer to a shady place, and be sure to loosen his collar and clothing, if tight. Raise the head and shoulders. The head, face, and chest should be drenched with cold water, and if it is very hot use cracked ice. In ordinary cases of heat prostration, the patient is not unconscious, the skin is pale and clammy, and the breathing is not normal. Force the patient to lie on his back with his head level with his body, and loosen all tight clothing. Apply heat to the extremities, and cold to head. The patient should not be allowed to drink too much water. Give him hot drinks, and apply heat to the spine and feet. Under no circumstances administer alcoholic stimulants. Always send for a physician.

Temperature of the Body.—The normal body temperature is 98.4 degrees Fahrenheit. When it is higher, the patient is supposed to have a fever. Temperature usually rises in the afternoon, being one degree higher than in the first part of the night or in the early morning. It gradually falls from midnight to six or seven o'clock in the morning. The temperature of a child frequently rises two degrees from slight causes. Every family should carry a clinical thermometer. Bodily temperature should be taken by holding it in the mouth under the tongue for two minutes. Temperature under 101° indicates a slight fever; under 103° a moderate fever; under 105° a high fever. When the temperature rises two or three degrees above normal, send for a doctor at once.

Temperature of the Sick-Room.—Sixty-eight degrees Fahrenheit is a good average temperature for the sick-room. In certain diseases the average temperature may be lower, and for throat or chest affections it should be higher. When the patient is being washed or dressed, the temperature should be kept at about 70°.

Toothache.—If the nerve is exposed, or nearly so, toothache may be cured by placing in the cavity a small piece of cotton soaked in creosote or oil of cloves. If it continues, consult a dentist.

Transporting the Wounded.—Great care should be taken, because the slightest carelessness is likely to cause intense suffering. A four-handed seat may be made by two persons, the hands of each one clasping one of the wrists of the other, and two ordinary men can easily carry a person of average weight. A stretcher will carry the patient in a horizontal position if the persons carrying it place their hands under it. A stretcher may be made of boards, over which are placed coats or shawls, or a blanket may be fastened to two stout poles; if no poles are handy, a shawl tightly held by two persons will do, but great care should be taken to keep it tight. A window shutter is generally available. The sufferer should be very carefully placed upon the stretcher, and had better be lifted by several persons, by two at least. The bearers of the stretcher should not keep step, the opposite feet should be put forward at the same time to prevent the swaying of the stretcher and the rolling of the patient. Never carry the stretcher on the shoulders. Carry the patient feet foremost, except when going up hill. In case of a fractured thigh or leg, carry the patient head first when going down hill.

Ventilation.—The sick-room should never be without fresh air. Impure and close air breeds disease and encourages illness. Fresh air should be introduced constantly and steadily. The windows may be lowered at the top or patented ventilators used. To change the air, open the windows in an adjoining room, and then open the door between the rooms, but the fresh air in the adjoining room should be warm before it is allowed to penetrate the sick-room. By swinging the door back and forth, the air will be fanned in. Do not maintain the erroneous impression that cold air is pure because it is cold, for cold air may be as foul as warm air. Night air is not dangerous. The patient must breathe night air or closed-in day air, and closed-in air rapidly becomes foul.

Vomiting.—Lie down and hold small pieces of ice in your mouth. If it continues, consult a physician.

Wills.—A will, untechnically speaking, is virtually a bill-of-sale or transfer of property by its owner to those he may designate, but differs from the ordinary bill-of-sale in that there is no consideration mentioned on the part of those who will receive the property, and the will is not operative until the death of the maker of it. No one can execute a will unless he is presumably in his right mind, and knows what he is doing. Nor can a will be made by an idiot or one insane. The will must be signed and witnessed by several witnesses, each witness signing as a witness in the presence of all of the other witnesses. While it would appear that every one has a right to dispose of his property as he chooses, a will is not likely to stand in law if it can be proved that the maker of it was under undue or unfair influence, and, therefore, distributed his property to the prejudice of those who would be entitled to it if no will was made. For example: a will is not likely to hold good if its maker unfairly disowned close legal heirs, like a wife, husband, or children, or bequeathed his property to some institution which it could be shown he probably would not have done had not unfair pressure been brought to bear upon him at the time he made his will. All legal heirs should, as a rule, be mentioned in a will, even though they are given insignificant sums. As the laws differ in the several states, it is suggested that it is better and safer to consult a good lawyer, or one familiar with conditions.

Wireless Telegraphy.—The exact date of the discovery or invention of wireless telegraphy is not accurately known. Many scientists discovered it theoretically before Marconi made it practical. Some scientific authorities claim that it was originated by Professor Dolbear, of Massachusetts. In 1899, messages were sent from England to France, and recently an intelligible message was flashed across the Atlantic Ocean. Unscientifically speaking, wireless telegraphy consists of discharging powerful electrical currents into the atmosphere, their vibrations being taken up by the natural electricity in the air, and received by wires placed at an elevation. Practically all sea-going steamers are equipped with wireless telegraphy.

Woman's Suffrage.—The first convention in the interest of woman's rights was held July 19, 1808, at Seneca Falls, N. Y. In 1850, a National Woman's Rights Convention was held in Worcester, Mass. From that time woman's suffrage was agitated in America and in England, and many of the leading women of the world strongly advocated it. It is growing rapidly, and is being recognized throughout the country, although all of the States have not given the vote to women. Under the Constitution of the United States a native-born woman may hold any office, including that of president, even though the women in all of the States cannot vote at the presidential election. The Constitution of the United States does not recognize sex, and in the eye of national law, women have all of the rights of men.

Women Voters.—Many of the towns, cities, and States give full franchise to women, while others allow them to vote for only a few officials. Woman's suffrage, or the right to vote, is spreading rapidly, and it is probably only a question of time before she will have full franchise throughout the entire country. There is nothing in the Constitution of the United States to prevent a woman from holding the office of president or vice-president if she was born in this country, and she can hold such offices even though she may not be permitted by State law to vote for them.