Fig. 136.
It is not generally believed that any active volcanoes exist on the moon at the present time, though some observers have thought they discerned indications of such volcanoes.
Fig. 137.
117. Copernicus.—This is one of the grandest of lunar craters (Fig. 137). Although its diameter (forty-six miles) is exceeded by others, yet, taken as a whole, it forms one of the most impressive and interesting objects of its class. Its situation, near the centre of the lunar disk, renders all its wonderful details conspicuous, as well as those of objects immediately surrounding it. Its vast rampart rises to upwards of twelve thousand feet above the level of the plateau, nearly in the centre of which stands a magnificent group of cones, three of which attain a height of more than twenty-four hundred feet.
Many ridges, or spurs, may be observed leading away from the outer banks of the great rampart. Around the crater, extending to a distance of more than a hundred miles on every side, there is a complex network of bright streaks, which diverge in all directions. These streaks do not appear in the figure, nor are they seen upon the moon, except at and near the full phase. They show conspicuously, however, by their united lustre on the full moon.
This crater is seen just to the south-west of the large dusky plain in the upper part of Fig. 132. This plain is Mare Imbrium, and the mountain-chain seen a little to the right of Copernicus is named the Apennines. Copernicus is also seen in Fig. 135, a little to the left of the same range.
Under circumstances specially favorable, myriads of comparatively minute but perfectly formed craters may be observed for more than seventy miles on all sides around Copernicus. The district on the south-east side is specially rich in these thickly scattered craters, which we have reason to suppose stand over or upon the bright streaks.
118. Dark Chasms.—Dark cracks, or chasms, have been observed on various parts of the moon's surface. They sometimes occur singly, and sometimes in groups. They are often seen to radiate from some central cone, and they appear to be of volcanic origin. They have been called canals and rills.
Fig. 138.
One of the most remarkable groups of these chasms is that to the west of the crater named Triesneker. The crater and the chasms are shown in Fig. 138. Several of these great cracks obviously diverge from a small crater near the west bank of the great one, and they subdivide as they extend from the apparent point of divergence, while they are crossed by others. These cracks, or chasms, are nearly a mile broad at the widest part, and, after extending full a hundred miles, taper away till they become invisible.
Fig. 139.
119. Mountain-Ranges.—There are comparatively few mountain-ranges on the moon. The three most conspicuous are those which partially enclose Mare Imbrium; namely, the Apennines on the south, and the Caucasus and the Alps on the east and north-east. The Apennines are the most extended of these, having a length of about four hundred and fifty miles. They rise gradually, from a comparatively level surface towards the south-west, in the form of innumerable small elevations, which increase in number and height towards the north-east, where they culminate in a range of peaks whose altitude and rugged aspect must form one of the most terribly grand and romantic scenes which imagination can conceive. The north-east face of the range terminates abruptly in an almost vertical precipice; while over the plain beneath, intensely black spire-like shadows are cast, some of which at sunrise extend full ninety miles, till they lose themselves in the general shading due to the curvature of the lunar surface. Many of the peaks rise to heights of from eighteen thousand to twenty thousand feet above the plain at their north-east base (Fig. 139).
Fig. 140.
Fig. 140 represents an ideal lunar landscape near the base of such a lunar range. Owing to the absence of an atmosphere, the stars will be visible in full daylight.
Fig. 141.
120. The Valley of the Alps.—The range of the Alps is shown in Fig. 141. The great crater at the north end of this range is named Plato. It is seventy miles in diameter.
The most remarkable feature of the Alps is the valley near the centre of the range. It is more than seventy-five miles long, and about six miles wide at the broadest part. When examined under favorable circumstances, with a high magnifying power, it is seen to be a vast flat-bottomed valley, bordered by gigantic mountains, some of which attain heights of ten thousand feet or more.
Fig. 142.
121. Isolated Peaks.—There are comparatively few isolated peaks to be found on the surface of the moon. One of the most remarkable of these is that known as Pico, and shown in Fig. 142. Its height exceeds eight thousand feet, and it is about three times as long at the base as it is broad. The summit is cleft into three peaks, as is shown by the three-peaked shadow it casts on the plain.
122. Bright Rays.—About the time of full moon, with a telescope of moderate power, a number of bright lines may be seen radiating from several of the lunar craters, extending often to the distance of hundreds of miles. These streaks do not arise from any perceptible difference of level of the surface, they have no very definite outline, and they do not present any sloping sides to catch more sunlight, and thus shine brighter, than the general surface. Indeed, one great peculiarity of them is, that they come out most forcibly when the sun is shining perpendicularly upon them: hence they are best seen when the moon is at full, and they are not visible at all at those regions upon which the sun is rising or setting. They are not diverted by elevations in their path, but traverse in their course craters, mountains, and plains alike, giving a slight additional brightness to all objects over which they pass, but producing no other effect upon them. "They look as if, after the whole surface of the moon had assumed its final configuration, a vast brush charged with a whitish pigment had been drawn over the globe in straight lines, radiating from a central point, leaving its trail upon every thing it touched, but obscuring nothing."
Fig. 143.
The three most conspicuous craters from which these lines radiate are Tycho, Copernicus, and Kepler. Tycho is seen at the bottom of Figs. 143 and 130. Kepler is a little to the left of Copernicus in the same figures.
It has been thought that these bright streaks are chasms which have been filled with molten lava, which, on cooling, would afford a smooth reflecting surface on the top.
123. Tycho.—This crater is fifty-four miles in diameter, and about sixteen thousand feet deep, from the highest ridge of the rampart to the surface of the plateau, whence rises a central cone five thousand feet high. It is one of the most conspicuous of all the lunar craters; not so much on account of its dimensions as from its being the centre from whence diverge those remarkable bright streaks, many of which may be traced over a thousand miles of the moon's surface (Fig. 143). Tycho appears to be an instance of a vast disruptive action which rent the solid crust of the moon into radiating fissures, which were subsequently filled with molten matter, whose superior luminosity marks the course of the cracks in all directions from the crater as their common centre. So numerous are these bright streaks when examined by the aid of the telescope, and they give to this region of the moon's surface such increased luminosity, that, when viewed as a whole, the locality can be distinctly seen at full moon by the unassisted eye, as a bright patch of light on the southern portion of the disk.
124. The Inferior Planets.—The inferior planets are those which lie between the earth and the sun, and whose orbits are included by that of the earth. They are Mercury and Venus.
Fig. 144.
125. Aspects of an Inferior Planet.—The four chief aspects of an inferior planet as seen from the earth are shown in Fig. 144, in which S represents the sun, P the planet, and E the earth.
When the planet is between the earth and the sun, as at P, it is said to be in inferior conjunction.
When it is in the same direction as the sun, but beyond it, as at P'', it is said to be in superior conjunction.
When the planet is at such a point in its orbit that a line drawn from the earth to it would be tangent to the orbit, as at P' and P''', it is said to be at its greatest elongation.
126. Apparent Motion of an Inferior Planet.—When the planet is at P, if it could be seen at all, it would appear in the heavens at A. As it moves from P to P', it will appear to move in the heavens from A to B. Then, as it moves from P' to P'', it will appear to move back again from B to A. While it moves from P'' to P''', it will appear to move from A to C; and, while moving from P''' to P, it will appear to move back again from C to A. Thus the planet will appear to oscillate to and fro across the sun from B to C, never getting farther from the sun than B on the west, or C on the east: hence, when at these points, it is said to be at its greatest western and eastern elongations. This oscillating motion of an inferior planet across the sun, combined with the sun's motion among the stars, causes the planet to describe a path among the stars similar to that shown in Fig. 145.
Fig. 146.
127. Phases of an Inferior Planet.—An inferior planet, when viewed with a telescope, is found to present a succession of phases similar to those of the moon. The reason of this is evident from Fig. 146. As an inferior planet passes around the sun, it presents sometimes more and sometimes less of its bright hemisphere to the earth. When the earth is at T, and Venus at superior conjunction, the planet turns the whole of its bright hemisphere towards the earth, and appears full; it then becomes gibbous, half, and crescent. When it comes into inferior conjunction, it turns its dark hemisphere towards the earth: it then becomes crescent, half, gibbous, and full again.
128. The Sidereal and Synodical Periods of an Inferior Planet.—The time it takes a planet to make a complete revolution around the sun is called the sidereal period of the planet; and the time it takes it to pass from one aspect around to the same aspect again, its synodical period.
Fig. 147.
The synodical period of an inferior planet is longer than its sidereal period. This will be evident from an examination of Fig. 147. S is the position of the sun, E that of the earth, and P that of the planet at inferior conjunction. Before the planet can be in inferior conjunction again, it must pass entirely around its orbit, and overtake the earth, which has in the mean time passed on in its orbit to E'.
While the earth is passing from E to E', the planet passes entirely around its orbit, and from P to P' in addition. Now the arc PP' is just equal to the arc EE': hence the planet has to pass over the same arc that the earth does, and 360° more. In other words, the planet has to gain 360° on the earth.
The synodical period of the planet is found by direct observation.
129. The Length of the Sidereal Period.—The length of the sidereal period of an inferior planet may be found by the following computation:—
130. The Relative Distance of an Inferior Planet.—By the relative distance of a planet, we mean its distance from the sun compared with the earth's distance from the sun. The relative distance of an inferior planet may be found by the following method:—
Fig. 148.
Let V, in Fig. 148, represent the position of Venus at its greatest elongation from the sun, S the position of the sun, and E that of the earth. The line EV will evidently be tangent to a circle described about the sun with a radius equal to the distance of Venus from the sun at the time of this greatest elongation. Draw the radius SV and the line SE. Since SV is a radius, the angle at V is a right angle. The angle at E is known by measurement, and the angle at S is equal to 90°- the angle E. In the right-angled triangle EVS, we then know the three angles, and we wish to find the ratio of the side SV to the side SE.
The ratio of these lines may be found by trigonometrical computation as follows:—
Substitute the value of the sine of SEV, and we have
Hence the relative distances of Venus and of the earth from the sun are .723 and 1.
131. The Superior Planets.—The superior planets are those which lie beyond the earth. They are Mars, the Asteroids, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Fig. 149.
132. Apparent Motion of a Superior Planet.—In order to deduce the apparent motion of a superior planet from the real motions of the earth and planet, let S (Fig. 149) be the place of the sun; 1, 2, 3, etc., the orbit of the earth; a, b, c, etc., the orbit of Mars; and CGL a part of the starry firmament. Let the orbit of the earth be divided into twelve equal parts, each described in one month; and let ab, bc, cd, etc., be the spaces described by Mars in the same time. Suppose the earth to be at the point 1 when Mars is at the point a, Mars will then appear in the heavens in the direction of 1 a. When the earth is at 3, and Mars at c, he will appear in the heavens at C. When the earth arrives at 4, Mars will arrive at d, and will appear in the heavens at D. While the earth moves from 4 to 5 and from 5 to 6, Mars will appear to have advanced among the stars from D to E and from E to F, in the direction from west to east. During the motion of the earth from 6 to 7 and from 7 to 8, Mars will appear to go backward from F to G and from G to H, in the direction from east to west. During the motion of the earth from 8 to 9 and from 9 to 10, Mars will appear to advance from H to I and from I to K, in the direction from west to east, and the motion will continue in the same direction until near the succeeding opposition.
The apparent motion of a superior planet projected on the heavens is thus seen to be similar to that of an inferior planet, except that, in the latter case, the retrogression takes place near inferior conjunction, and in the former it takes place near opposition.
133. Aspects of a Superior Planet.—The four aspects of a superior planet are shown in Fig. 150, in which S is the position of the sun, E that of the earth, and P that of the planet.
When the planet is on the opposite side of the earth to the sun, as at P, it is said to be in opposition. The sun and the planet will then appear in opposite parts of the heavens, the sun appearing at C, and the planet at A.
When the planet is on the opposite side of the sun to the earth, as at P'', it is said to be in superior conjunction. It will then appear in the same part of the heavens as the sun, both appearing at C.
When the planet is at P' and P''', so that a line drawn from the earth through the planet will make a right angle with a line drawn from the earth to the sun, it is said to be in quadrature. At P' it is in its western quadrature, and at P''' in its eastern quadrature.
Fig. 151.
134. Phases of a Superior Planet.—Mars is the only one of the superior planets that has appreciable phases. At quadrature, as will appear from Fig. 151, Mars does not present quite the same side to the earth as to the sun: hence, near these parts of its orbit, the planet appears slightly gibbous. Elsewhere in its orbit, the planet appears full.
All the other superior planets are so far away from the sun and earth, that the sides which they turn towards the sun and the earth in every part of their orbit are so nearly the same, that no change in the form of their disks can be detected.
135. The Synodical Period of a Superior Planet.—During a synodical period of a superior planet the earth must gain one revolution, or 360°, on the planet, as will be evident from an examination of Fig. 152, in which S represents the sun, E the earth, and P the planet at opposition. Before the planet can be in opposition again, the earth must make a complete revolution, and overtake the planet, which has in the mean time passed on from P to P'.
Fig. 152.
In the case of most of the superior planets the synodical period is shorter than the sidereal period; but in the case of Mars it is longer, since Mars makes more than a complete revolution before the earth overtakes it.
The synodical period of a superior planet is found by direct observation.
136. The Sidereal Period of a Superior Planet.—The sidereal period of a superior planet is found by a method of computation similar to that for finding the sidereal period of an inferior planet:—
Fig. 153.
137. The Relative Distance of a Superior Planet.—Let S, e, and m, in Fig. 153, represent the relative positions of the sun, the earth, and Mars, when the latter planet is in opposition. Let E and M represent the relative positions of the earth and Mars the day after opposition. At the first observation Mars will be seen in the direction emA, and at the second observation in the direction EMA.
But the fixed stars are so distant, that if a line, eA, were drawn to a fixed star at the first observation, and a line, EB, drawn from the earth to the same fixed star at the second observation, these two lines would be sensibly parallel; that is, the fixed star would be seen in the direction of the line eA at the first observation, and in the direction of the line EB, parallel to eA, at the second observation. But if Mars were seen in the direction of the fixed star at the first observation, it would appear back, or west, of that star at the second observation by the angular distance BEA; that is, the planet would have retrograded that angular distance. Now, this retrogression of Mars during one day, at the time of opposition, can be measured directly by observation. This measurement gives us the value of the angle BEA; but we know the rate at which both the earth and Mars are moving in their orbits, and from this we can easily find the angular distance passed over by each in one day. This gives us the angles ESA and MSA. We can now find the relative length of the lines MS and ES (which represent the distances of Mars and of the earth from the sun), both by construction and by trigonometrical computation.
Since EB and eA are parallel, the angle EAS is equal to BEA.
We have then
Substituting the values of the sines, and reducing the ratio to its lowest terms, we have
Thus we find that the relative distances of Mars and the earth from the sun are 1.524 and 1. By the simple observation of its greatest elongation, we are able to determine the relative distances of an inferior planet and the earth from the sun; and, by the equally simple observation of the daily retrogression of a superior planet, we can find the relative distances of such a planet and the earth from the sun.
Fig. 154.
138. The Volume of the Sun.—The apparent diameter of the sun is about 32', being a little greater than that of the moon. The real diameter of the sun is 866,400 miles, or about a hundred and nine times that of the earth.
As the diameter of the moon's orbit is only about 480,000 miles, or some sixty times the diameter of the earth, it follows that the diameter of the sun is nearly double that of the moon's orbit: hence, were the centre of the sun placed at the centre of the earth, the sun would completely fill the moon's orbit, and reach nearly as far beyond it in every direction as it is from the earth to the moon. The circumference of the sun as compared with the moon's orbit is shown in Fig. 154.
The volume of the sun is 1,305,000 times that of the earth.
139. The Mass of the Sun.—The sun is much less dense than the earth. The mass of the sun is only 330,000 times that of the earth, and its density only about a fourth that of the earth.
To find the mass of the sun, we first ascertain the distance the earth would draw the moon towards itself in a given time, were the moon at the distance of the sun, and then form the proportion: as the distance the earth would draw the moon towards itself is to the distance that the sun draws the earth towards itself in the same time, so is the mass of the earth to the mass of the sun.
Although the mass of the sun is over three hundred thousand times that of the earth, the pull of gravity at the surface of the sun is only about twenty-eight times as great as at the surface of the earth. This is because the distance from the surface of the sun to its centre is much greater than from the surface to the centre of the earth.
Fig. 155.
140. Size of the Sun Compared with that of the Planets.—The size of the sun compared with that of the larger planets is shown in Fig. 155. The mass of the sun is more than seven hundred and fifty times that of all of the planets and moons in the solar system. In Fig. 156 is shown the apparent size of the sun as seen from the different planets. The apparent diameter of the sun decreases as the distance from it increases, and the disk of the sun decreases as the square of the distance from it increases.
Fig. 156.
141. The Distance of the Sun.—The mean distance of the sun from the earth is about 92,800,000 miles. Owing to the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, the distance of the sun varies somewhat; being about 3,000,000 miles less in January, when the earth is at perihelion, than in June, when the earth is at aphelion.
"But, though the distance of the sun can easily be stated in figures, it is not possible to give any real idea of a space so enormous: it is quite beyond our power of conception. If one were to try to walk such a distance, supposing that he could walk four miles an hour, and keep it up for ten hours every day, it would take sixty-eight years and a half to make a single million of miles, and more than sixty-three hundred years to traverse the whole.
"If some celestial railway could be imagined, the journey to the sun, even if our trains ran sixty miles an hour day and night and without a stop, would require over a hundred and seventy-five years. Sensation, even, would not travel so far in a human lifetime. To borrow the curious illustration of Professor Mendenhall, if we could imagine an infant with an arm long enough to enable him to touch the sun and burn himself, he would die of old age before the pain could reach him; since, according to the experiments of Helmholtz and others, a nervous shock is communicated only at the rate of about a hundred feet per second, or 1,637 miles a day, and would need more than a hundred and fifty years to make the journey. Sound would do it in about fourteen years, if it could be transmitted through celestial space; and a cannon-ball in about nine, if it were to move uniformly with the same speed as when it left the muzzle of the gun. If the earth could be suddenly stopped in her orbit, and allowed to fall unobstructed toward the sun, under the accelerating influence of his attraction, she would reach the centre in about four months. I have said if she could be stopped; but such is the compass of her orbit, that, to make its circuit in a year, she has to move nearly nineteen miles a second, or more than fifty times faster than the swiftest rifle-ball; and, in moving twenty miles, her path deviates from perfect straightness by less than an eighth of an inch. And yet, over all the circumference of this tremendous orbit, the sun exercises his dominion, and every pulsation of his surface receives its response from the subject earth." (Professor C. A. Young: The Sun.)
142. Method of Finding the Sun's Distance.—There are several methods of finding the sun's distance. The simplest method is that of finding the actual distance of one of the nearer planets by observing its displacement in the sky as seen from widely separated points on the earth. As the relative distances of the planets from each other and from the sun are well known, we can easily deduce the actual distance of the sun if we can find that of any of the planets. The two planets usually chosen for this method are Mars and Venus.
(1) The displacement of Mars in the sky, as seen from two observatories which differ considerably in latitude, is, of course, greatest when Mars is nearest the earth. Now, it is evident than Mars will be nearer the earth when in opposition than when in any other part of its orbit; and the planet will be least distant from the earth when it is at its perihelion point, and the earth is at its aphelion point, at the time of opposition. This method, then, can be used to the best advantage, when, at the time of opposition, Mars is near its perihelion, and the earth near its aphelion. These favorable oppositions occur about once in fifteen years, and the last one was in 1877.
Fig. 157.
Suppose two observers situated at N' and S' (Fig. 157), near the poles of the earth. The one at N' would see Mars in the sky at N, and the one at S' would see it at S. The displacement would be the angle NMS. Each observer measures carefully the distance of Mars from the same fixed star near it. The difference of these distances gives the displacement of the planet, or the angle NMS. These observations were made with the greatest care in 1877.
(2) Venus is nearest the earth at the time of inferior conjunction; but it can then be seen only in the daytime. It is, therefore, impossible to ascertain the displacement of Venus, as seen from different stations, by comparing her distances from a fixed star. Occasionally, at the time of inferior conjunction, Venus passes directly across the sun's disk. The last of these transits of Venus occurred in 1874, and the next will occur in 1882. It will then be over a hundred years before another will occur.
Fig. 158.
Suppose two observers, A and B (Fig. 158), near the poles of the earth at the time of a transit of Venus. The observer at A would see Venus crossing the sun at V2, and the one at B would see it crossing at V1. Any observation made upon Venus, which would give the distance and direction of Venus from the centre of the sun, as seen from each station, would enable us to calculate the angular distance between the two chords described across the sun. This, of course, would give the displacement of Venus on the sun's disk. This method was first employed at the last transits of Venus which occurred before 1874; namely, those of 1761 and 1769.
There are three methods of observation employed to ascertain the apparent direction and distance of Venus from the centre of the sun, called respectively the contact method, the micrometric method, and the photographic method.
(a) In the contact method, the observation consists in noting the exact time when Venus crosses the sun's limb. To ascertain this it is necessary to observe the exact time of external and internal contact. This observation, though apparently simple, is really very difficult. With reference to this method Professor Young says,—
"The difficulties depend in part upon the imperfections of optical instruments and the human eye, partly upon the essential nature of light leading to what is known as diffraction, and partly upon the action of the planet's atmosphere. The two first-named causes produce what is called irradiation, and operate to make the apparent diameter of the planet, as seen on the solar disk, smaller than it really is; smaller, too, by an amount which varies with the size of the telescope, the perfection of its lenses, and the tint and brightness of the sun's image. The edge of the planet's image is also rendered slightly hazy and indistinct.
Fig. 159.
"The planet's atmosphere also causes its disk to be surrounded by a narrow ring of light, which becomes visible long before the planet touches the sun, and, at the moment of internal contact, produces an appearance, of which the accompanying figure is intended to give an idea, though on an exaggerated scale. The planet moves so slowly as to occupy more than twenty minutes in crossing the sun's limb; so that even if the planet's edge were perfectly sharp and definite, and the sun's limb undistorted, it would be very difficult to determine the precise second at which contact occurs. But, as things are, observers with precisely similar telescopes, and side by side, often differ from each other five or six seconds; and, where the telescopes are not similar, the differences and uncertainties are much greater.... Astronomers, therefore, at present are pretty much agreed that such observations can be of little value in removing the remaining uncertainty of the parallax, and are disposed to put more reliance upon the micrometric and photographic methods, which are free from these peculiar difficulties, though, of course, beset with others, which, however, it is hoped will prove less formidable."
(b) Of the micrometric method, as employed at the last transit, Professor Young speaks as follows:—
"The micrometric method requires the use of a heliometer,—an instrument common only in Germany, and requiring much skill and practice in its use in order to obtain with it accurate measures. At the late transit, a single English party, two or three of the Russian parties, and all five of the German, were equipped with these instruments; and at some of the stations extensive series of measures were made. None of the results, however, have appeared as yet; so that it is impossible to say how greatly, if at all, this method will have the advantage in precision over the contact observations."
(c) The following observations, with reference to the photographic method, are also taken from Professor Young:—
"The Americans and French placed their main reliance upon the photographic method, while the English and Germans also provided for its use to a certain extent. The great advantage of this method is, that it makes it possible to perform the necessary measurements (upon whose accuracy every thing depends) at leisure after the transit, without hurry, and with all possible precautions. The field-work consists merely in obtaining as many and as good pictures as possible. A principal objection to the method lies in the difficulty of obtaining good pictures, i.e., pictures free from distortion, and so distinct and sharp as to bear high magnifying power in the microscopic apparatus used for their measurement. The most serious difficulty, however, is involved in the accurate determination of the scale of the picture; that is, of the number of seconds of arc corresponding to a linear inch upon the plate. Besides this, we must know the exact Greenwich time at which each picture is taken, and it is also extremely desirable that the orientation of the picture should be accurately determined; that is, the north and south, the east and west points of the solar image on the finished plate. There has been a good deal of anxiety lest the image, however accurate and sharp when first produced, should alter, in course of time, through the contraction of the collodion film on the glass plate; but the experiments of Rutherfurd, Huggins, and Paschen, seem to show that this danger is imaginary.... The Americans placed the photographic telescope exactly in line with a meridian instrument, and so determined, with the extremest precision, the direction in which it was pointed. Knowing this and the time at which any picture was taken, it becomes possible, with the help of the plumb-line image, to determine precisely the orientation of the picture,—an advantage possessed by the American pictures alone, and making their value nearly twice as great as otherwise it would have been.
"The figure below is a representation of one of the American photographs reduced about one-half. V is the image of Venus, which, on the actual plate, is about a seventh of an inch in diameter; aa' is the image of the plumb-line. The centre of the reticle is marked with a cross."
Fig. 160.
The English photographs proved to be of little value, and the results of the measurements and calculations upon the American pictures have not yet been published. There is a growing apprehension that no photographic method can be relied upon.
The most recent determinations by various methods indicate that the sun's distance is such that his parallax is about eighty-eight seconds. This would make the linear value of a second at the surface of the sun about four hundred and fifty miles.
Plate 1.
143. The Sun Composed mainly of Gas.—It is now generally believed that the sun is mainly a ball of gas, or vapor, powerfully condensed at the centre by the weight of the superincumbent mass, but kept from liquefying by its exceedingly high temperature.
The gaseous interior of the sun is surrounded by a layer of luminous clouds, which constitutes its visible surface, and which is called its photosphere. Here and there in the photosphere are seen dark spots, which often attain an immense magnitude.
These clouds float in the solar atmosphere, which extends some distance beyond them.
The luminous surface of the sun is surrounded by a rose-colored stratum of gaseous matter, called the chromosphere. Here and there great masses of this chromospheric matter rise high above the general level. These masses are called prominences.
Outside of the chromosphere is the corona, an irregular halo of faint, pearly light, mainly composed of filaments and streamers, which radiate from the sun to enormous distances, often more than a million of miles.
In Fig. 161 is shown a section of the sun, according to Professor Young.
The accompanying lithographic plate gives a general view of the photosphere with its spots, and of the chromosphere and its prominences.
144. The Temperature of the Sun.—Those who have investigated the subject of the temperature of the sun have come to very different conclusions; some placing it as high as four million degrees Fahrenheit, and others as low as ten thousand degrees. Professor Young thinks that Rosetti's estimate of eighteen thousand degrees as the effective temperature of the sun's surface is probably not far from correct. By this is meant the temperature that a uniform surface of lampblack of the size of the sun must have in order to radiate as much heat as the sun does. The most intense artificial heat does not exceed four thousand degrees Fahrenheit.
Fig. 161.
145. The Amount of Heat Radiated by the Sun.—A unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water one degree in temperature. It takes about a hundred and forty-three units of heat to melt a pound of ice without changing its temperature. A cubic foot of ice weighs about fifty-seven pounds. According to Sir William Herschel, were all the heat radiated by the sun concentrated on a cylinder of ice forty-five miles in diameter, it would melt it off at the rate of about a hundred and ninety thousand miles a second.
Professor Young gives the following illustration of the energy of solar radiation: "If we could build up a solid column of ice from the earth to the sun, two miles and a quarter in diameter, spanning the inconceivable abyss of ninety-three million miles, and if then the sun should concentrate his power upon it, it would dissolve and melt, not in an hour, nor a minute, but in a single second. One swing of the pendulum, and it would be water; seven more, and it would be dissipated in vapor."