THROUGH NATURE TO GOD

By John Fiske



CONTENTS

The Mystery of Evil
I. The Serpent's Promise to the Woman 3
II. The Pilgrim's Burden 8
III. Manichæism and Calvinism 14
IV. The Dramatic Unity of Nature 22
V. What Conscious Life is made of 27
VI. Without the Element of Antagonism there could be no Consciousness, and therefore no World 34
VII. A Word of Caution 40
VIII. The Hermit and the Angel 43
IX. Man's Rise from the Innocence of Brutehood 48
X. The Relativity of Evil 54

The Cosmic Roots of Love and Self-Sacrifice
I. The Summer Field, and what it tells us 59
II. Seeming Wastefulness of the Cosmic Process 65
III. Caliban's Philosophy 72
IV. Can it be that the Cosmic Process has no Relation to Moral Ends? 74
V. First Stages in the Genesis of Man 80
VI. The Central Fact in the Genesis of Man 86
VII. The Chief Cause of Man's lengthened Infancy 88
VIII. Some of its Effects 96
IX. Origin of Moral Ideas and Sentiments 102
X. The Cosmic Process exists purely for the Sake of Moral Ends 109
XI. Maternity and the Evolution of Altruism 117
XII. The Omnipresent Ethical Trend 127

The Everlasting Reality of Religion
I. Deo erexit Voltaire 133
II. The Reign of Law, and the Greek Idea of God 147
III. Weakness of Materialism 152
IV. Religion's First Postulate: the Quasi-Human God 163
V. Religion's Second Postulate: the undying Human Soul 168
VI. Religion's Third Postulate: the Ethical Significance of the Unseen World 171
VII. Is the Substance of Religion a Phantom, or an Eternal Reality? 174
VIII. The Fundamental Aspect of Life 177
IX. How the Evolution of Senses expands the World 182
X. Nature's Eternal Lesson is the Everlasting Reality of Religion 186





A CENTURY OF SCIENCE

And Other Essays

By John Fiske



CONTENTS

PAGE
I. A Century of Science 1
II. The Doctrine of Evolution: its Scope and Purport 39
III. Edward Livingston Youmans 64
IV. The Part played by Infancy in the Evolution of Man 100
V. The Origins of Liberal Thought in America 122
VI. Sir Harry Vane 154
VII. The Arbitration Treaty 166
VIII. Francis Parkman 194
IX. Edward Augustus Freeman 265
X. Cambridge as Village and City 286
XI. A Harvest of Irish Folk-Lore 319
XII. Guessing at Half and Multiplying by Two 333
XIII. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly 350
XIV. Some Cranks and their Crotchets 405
Note 461
Index 467





THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

By John Fiske

With Many Illustrations

TWO VOLUMES IN ONE



CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
THE BEGINNINGS
  PAGE
Relations between the American colonies and the British government in the first half of the eighteenth century 1
The Lords of Trade 2
The governors’ salaries 3
Sir Robert Walpole 4
Views of the Lords of Trade as to the need for a union of the colonies 5
Weakness of the sentiment of union 6
The Albany Congress 6
Franklin’s plan for a federal union (1754) 7, 8
Rejection of Franklin’s plan 9
Shirley recommends a stamp act 10
The writs of assistance 11
The chief justice of New York 12
Otis’s “Vindication” 13
Expenses of the French War 14
Grenville’s resolves 15
Reply of the colonies 16
Passage of the Stamp Act 17
Patrick Henry and the Parsons’ Cause 18
Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Stamp Act 19, 20
The Stamp Act Congress 20-22
Declaration of the Massachusetts assembly 22
Resistance to the Stamp Act in Boston 23
And in New York 24
Debate in the House of Commons 25, 26
Repeal of the Stamp Act 26, 27
The Duke of Grafton’s ministry 28
Charles Townshend and his revenue acts 29-31
Attack upon the New York assembly 32
Parliament did not properly represent the British people 32, 33
Difficulty of the problem 34
Representation of Americans in Parliament 35
Mr. Gladstone and the Boers 36
Death of Townshend 37
His political legacy to George III. 37
Character of George III. 38, 39
English parties between 1760 and 1784 40, 41
George III. as a politician 42
His chief reason for quarrelling with the Americans 42, 43
CHAPTER II
THE CRISIS
Character of Lord North 44
John Dickinson and the “Farmer’s Letters” 45
The Massachusetts circular letter 46, 47
Lord Hillsborough’s instructions to Bernard 48
The “Illustrious Ninety-Two” 48
Impressment of citizens 49
Affair of the sloop Liberty 49-51
Statute of Henry VIII. concerning “treason committed abroad” 52
Samuel Adams makes up his mind (1768) 53-56
Arrival of troops in Boston 56, 57
Letters of “Vindex” 58
Debate in Parliament 59, 60
All the Townshend acts, except the one imposing a duty upon tea, to be repealed 61
Recall of Governor Bernard 61
Character of Thomas Hutchinson 62
Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Townshend acts 63
Conduct of the troops in Boston 64
Assault on James Otis 64
The “Boston Massacre” 65-68
Some of its lessons 69-72
Lord North becomes prime minister 72
Action of the New York merchants 73
Assemblies convened in strange places 74
Taxes in Maryland 74
The “Regulators” in North Carolina 74
Affair of the schooner Gaspee 75, 76
The salaries of the Massachusetts judges 76
Jonathan Mayhew’s suggestion (1766) 77
The committees of correspondence in Massachusetts 78
Intercolonial committees of correspondence 79
Revival of the question of taxation 80
The king’s ingenious scheme for tricking the Americans into buying the East India Company’s tea 81
How Boston became the battle-ground 82
Advice solemnly sought and given by the Massachusetts towns 82-84
Arrival of the tea; meeting at the Old South 84, 85
The tea-ships placed under guard 85
Rotch’s dilatory manœuvres 86
Great town meeting at the Old South 87, 88
The tea thrown into the harbour 88, 89
Moral grandeur of the scene 90, 91
How Parliament received the news 91-93
The Boston Port Bill 93
The Regulating Act 93-95
Act relating to the shooting of citizens 96
The quartering of troops in towns 96
The Quebec Act 96
General Gage sent to Boston 97, 98
CHAPTER III
THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Protest of the Whig Lords 99
Belief that the Americans would not fight 100
Belief that Massachusetts would not be supported by the other colonies 101
News of the Port Bill 101, 102
Samuel Adams at Salem 103, 104
Massachusetts nullifies the Regulating Act 105
John Hancock and Joseph Warren 106, 107
The Suffolk County Resolves 108
Provincial Congress in Massachusetts 109
First meeting of the Continental Congress (September 5, 1774) 110, 111
Debates in Parliament 112, 113
William Howe appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in America 113
Richard, Lord Howe, appointed admiral of the fleet 114
Franklin returns to America 115
State of feeling in the middle colonies 116
Lord North’s mistaken hopes of securing New York 117
Affairs in Massachusetts 101
Dr. Warren’s oration at the Old South 119
Attempt to corrupt Samuel Adams 120
Orders to arrest Adams and Hancock 121
Paul Revere’s ride 122, 123
Pitcairn fires upon the yeomanry at Lexington 124, 125
The troops repulsed at Concord; their dangerous situation 126, 127
The retreating troops rescued by Lord Percy 128
Retreat continued from Lexington to Charlestown 129
Rising of the country; the British besieged in Boston 130
Effects of the news in England and in America 130-133
Mecklenburg County Resolves 133
Legend of the Mecklenburg “Declaration of Independence” 133-135
Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen 135
Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point 136-140
Second meeting of the Continental Congress 141
Appointment of George Washington to command the Continental army 142-144
The siege of Boston 145
Gage’s proclamation 145
The Americans occupy Bunker’s and Breed’s hills 146
Arrival of Putnam, Stark, and Warren 147
Gage decides to try an assault 148, 149
First assault repulsed 149
Second assault repulsed 150
Prescott’s powder gives out 150
Third assault succeeds; the British take the hill 151
British and American losses 151, 152
Excessive slaughter; significance of the battle 153
Its moral effects 154
CHAPTER IV
INDEPENDENCE
Washington’s arrival in Cambridge 155
Continental officers: Daniel Morgan 156
Benedict Arnold, John Stark, John Sullivan 157
Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox 158
Israel Putnam 159
Horatio Gates and Charles Lee 160
Lee’s personal peculiarities 161, 162
Dr. Benjamin Church 163
Difficult work for Washington 164
Absence of governmental organization 165
New government of Massachusetts (July, 1775) 166
Congress sends a last petition to the king 167
The king issues a proclamation, and tries to hire troops from Russia 168-170
Catherine refuses; the king hires German troops 170
Indignation in Germany 171
Burning of Falmouth (Portland) 171
Effects of all this upon Congress 172, 173
Montgomery’s invasion of Canada and capture of Montreal 174, 175
Arnold’s march through the wilderness of Maine 176
Assault upon Quebec (December 31, 1775) 177
Total failure of the attempt upon Canada 178
The siege of Boston 179
Washington seizes Dorchester Heights (March 4, 1776) 180, 181
The British troops evacuate Boston (March 17) 182, 183
Movement toward independence; a provisional flag (January 1, 1776) 184
Effect of the hiring of “myrmidons” 185
Thomas Paine 185
His pamphlet entitled “Common Sense” 186, 187
Fulminations and counter-fulminations 188
The Scots in North Carolina 188
Sir Henry Clinton sails for the Carolinas 189
The fight at Moore’s Creek; North Carolina declares for independence 189
Action of South Carolina and Georgia 190
Affairs in Virginia; Lord Dunmore’s proclamation 190
Skirmish at the Great Bridge, and burning of Norfolk 191
Virginia declares for independence 192
Action of Rhode Island and Massachusetts 192
Resolution adopted in Congress May 15 193
Instructions from the Boston town meeting 194
Richard Henry Lee’s motion in Congress 194
Debate on Lee’s 195, 196
Action of the other colonies; Connecticut and New Hampshire 196
New Jersey 197
Pennsylvania and Delaware 197-199
Maryland 199
The situation in New York 200
The Tryon plot 201
Final debate on Lee’s motion 202
Vote on Lee’s motion 203
Form of the Declaration of Independence 204
Thomas Jefferson 204, 205
The declaration was a deliberate expression of the sober thought of the American people 206, 207
CHAPTER V
FIRST BLOW AT THE CENTRE
Lord Cornwallis arrives upon the scene 208
Battle of Fort Moultrie (June 28, 1776) 209-211
British plan for conquering the valley of the Hudson, and cutting the United Colonies in twain 212
Lord Howe’s futile attempt to negotiate with Washington unofficially 213, 214
The military problem at New York 214-216
Importance of Brooklyn Heights 217
Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776) 218-220
Howe prepares to besiege the Heights 220
But Washington slips away with his army 221
And robs the British of the most golden opportunity ever offered them 221-223
The conference at Staten Island 223, 224
General Howe takes the city of New York September 15 224
But Mrs. Lindley Murray saves the garrison 225
Attack upon Harlem Heights 225
The new problem before Howe 225, 226
He moves upon Throg’s Neck, but Washington changes base 227
Baffled at White Plans, Howe tries a new plan 228
Washington’s orders in view of the emergency 228
Congress meddles with the situation and muddles it 229
Howe takes Fort Washington by storm (November 16) 230
Washington and Greene 231
Outrageous conduct of Charles Le 231, 232
Greene barely escapes from Fort Lee (November 20) 233
Lee intrigues against Washington 233, 234
Washington retreats into Pennsylvania 234
Reinforcements come from Schuyler 235
Fortunately for the Americans, the British capture Charles Lee (December 13) 235-238
The times that tried men’s souls 238, 239
Washington prepares to strike back 239
He crosses the Delaware, and pierces the British centre at Trenton (December 26) 240, 241
Cornwallis comes up to retrieve the disaster 242
And thinks he has run down the “old fox" at the Assunpink (January 2, 1777) 242
But Washington prepares a checkmate 243
And again severs the British line at Princeton (January 3) 244
General retreat of the British upon New York 245
The tables completely turned 246
Washington’s superb generalship 247
Effects in England 248
And in France 249
Franklin’s arrival in France 250
Secret aid from France 251
Lafayette goes to America 252
Efforts toward remodelling the Continental army 252-255
Services of Robert Morris 255
Ill feeling between the states 256
Extraordinary powers conferred upon Washington 257-258
CHAPTER VI
SECOND BLOW AT THE CENTRE
Invasion of New York by Sir Guy Carleton 259
Arnold’s preparations 260
Battle of Valcour Island (October 11, 1776) 260-262
Congress promotes five junior brigadiers over Arnold (February 19, 1777) 262
Character of Philip Schuyler 263
Horatio Gates 264
Gates intrigues against Schuyler 265
His unseemly behaviour before Congress 266
Charges against Arnold 267, 268
Arnold defeats Tryon at Ridgefield (April 27, 1777) 269
Preparations for the summer campaign 269
The military centre of the United States was the state of New York 270
A second blow was to be struck at the centre; the plan of campaign 271
The plan was unsound; it separated the British forces too widely, and gave the Americans the advantage of interior lines 272-274
Germain’s fatal error; he overestimated the strength of the Tories 274
Too many unknown quantities 275
Danger from New England ignored 276
Germain’s negligence; the dispatch that was never sent 277
Burgoyne advances upon Ticonderoga 277, 278
Phillips seizes Mount Defiance 279
Evacuation of Ticonderoga 279
Battle of Hubbardton (July 7) 280
One swallow does not make a summer 280-282
The king’s glee; wrath of John Adams 282
Gates was chiefly to blame 282
Burgoyne’s difficulties beginning 283
Schuyler wisely evacuates Fort Edward 284
Enemies gathering in Burgoyne’s rear 285
Use of Indian auxiliaries 285
Burgoyne’s address to the chiefs 286
Burke ridicules the address 286
The story of Jane McCrea 287, 288
The Indians desert Burgoyne 289
Importance of Bennington; Burgoyne sends a German force against it 290
Stark prepares to receive the Germans 291
Battle of Bennington (August 16); nearly the whole German army captured on the field 292, 293
Effect of the news; Burgoyne’s enemies multiply 294
Advance of St. Leger upon Fort Stanwix 295
Herkimer marches against him; Herkimer’s plan 296
Failure of the plan 297
Thayendanegea prepares an ambuscade 298
Battle of Oriskany (August 6) 298-300
Colonel Willett’s sortie; first hoisting of the stars and stripes 300-301
Death of Herkimer 301
Arnold arrives at Schuyler’s camp 302
And volunteers to retrieve Fort Stanwix 303
Yan Yost Cuyler and his stratagem 304
Flight of St. Leger (August 22) 305
Burgoyne’s dangerous situation 306
Schuyler superseded by Gates 306
Position of the two armies (August 19-September 12) 307
CHAPTER VII
SARATOGA
Why Sir William Howe went to Chesapeake Bay 308
Charles Lee in captivity 308-310
Treason of Charles Lee 311-314
Folly of moving upon Philadelphia as the “rebel capital” 314, 315
Effect of Lee’s advice 315
Washington’s masterly campaign in New Jersey (June, 1777) 316, 317
Uncertainty as to Howe’s next movements 317, 318
Howe’s letter to Burgoyne 318
Comments of Washington and Greene 319, 320
Howe’s alleged reason trumped up and worthless 320
Burgoyne’s fate was practically decided when Howe arrived at Elkton 321
Washington’s reasons for offering battle 321
He chooses a very strong position 322
Battle of the Brandywine (September 11) 322-326
Washington’s skill in detaining the enemy 326
The British enter Philadelphia (September 26) 326
Significance of Forts Mercer and Mifflin 327
The situation at Germantown 327, 328
Washington’s audacious plan 328
Battle of Germantown (October 4) 329-332
Howe captures Forts Mercer and Mifflin 333
Burgoyne recognizes the fatal error of Germain 333
Nevertheless he crosses the Hudson River 334
First battle at Freeman’s Farm (September 19) 335
Quarrel between Gates and Arnold 336-337
Burgoyne’s supplies cut off 338
Second battle at Freeman’s Farm (October 7); the British totally defeated by Arnold 338-340
The British army is surrounded 341
Sir Henry Clinton comes up the river, but it is too late 342
The silver bullet 343
Burgoyne surrenders (October 17) 343, 344
Schuyler’s magnanimity 345
Bad faith of Congress 346-349
The behaviour of Congress was simply inexcusable 350
What became of the captured army 350, 351