From three to five in the afternoon the Avenida, from the Ouvidor to the Avenida Hotel, is crowded with well-dressed ladies who make these few blocks a sort of promenade. One will see handsomely gowned matrons, demure little maidens, and senhoritas who are just beginning to seek the favours of the young men, and this gives them an opportunity to see and be seen. The ladies wear huge Parisian hats and high heels, and are gowned elaborately. Powder, paste, rouge and other cosmetics are much in evidence, even among the younger ones, whose complexions hardly need such aids to freshness. The figures are plump, and those of the matrons have reached a stoutness that must be distressing to them. The men, whose narrow shoulders and thin chests are in striking contrast to the plump figures of the ladies, sit at the street tables of the cafés and watch them as they pass; but they rather like than resent this, for it is the custom of the country, and a long look is a mark of flattery which they appreciate.

In the streets there is a constant movement. Carriages with liveried drivers, high-wheeled carts loaded with freight, curious little Japanese “kiosks,” in which walks a vendor of dulces, and carigadores with loads upon their heads pass along in endless procession. I have seen pianos thus borne upon the heads of four men pass along the Avenida. Other heavy articles of furniture, and large panes of plate glass are carried in the same way. The old-fashioned, two-wheeled tilbury, so common here, whisks along at as lively a rate as the horse can go. Only one passenger dares ride in one of them, or a great commotion will be raised among the other tilbury drivers. The “fon-fon” of the automobile is constantly heard. A line of auto omnibuses is run along this avenue, and then some of the four hundred or more private autos will be in view at any time. Ice is delivered by automobile, for quick delivery is important in a hot climate when the price is three cents a pound. The automobile ambulance is sure to pass along, as it is always on the go, and then there are a number of auto deliveries, police hurry-up wagons, fire trucks, and even a street sprinkler propelled by gasoline.

The police are omnipresent, and are to be found everywhere. There are three classes of these guardians of the public peace: the civil, the military and the mounted police. The former are under the prefect, and the military police, who wear a different uniform, are under the authority of the minister of war. The military police may be seen several times a day, marching along in large or small squads with a bugler to announce their coming. The civil police are more numerous but less conspicuous. It is said that there are oftentimes more or less serious conflicts of authority between the two police organizations. The military police department has a number of auto patrol wagons which are frequently seen on the streets. Whenever a call is sent to headquarters a wagon is loaded up with ten or a dozen officers, and is then sent pell-mell through the streets to the point of call, and frequently two wagons thus loaded will appear. Perhaps the occasion of the call is some harmless drunk (although drunkenness is not common), and it seems a joke to see such a formidable force appear upon such an occasion. At night, a policeman may be found upon almost any corner, and, if there is safety in numbers, then Rio de Janeiro is a very secure place in which to live.

Along the Avenida are many fine office buildings belonging to private concerns, some of which cover almost an entire square, and many of which are truly architecturally beautiful structures. Perhaps among the finest of these are the homes of three of the leading newspapers; the Jornal do Commercio, Jornal do Brazil and O Paiz. The variety of architecture prevents any appearance of monotony. The Caixa de Amortizacão, or treasury building, where the paper and gold money are exchanged and equalized, is a very beautiful building on the corner of the Rua Uruguayana. Near the other end of the Avenida are several fine public buildings. One of these is the new Art Museum, and another the new National Library, neither of which were quite finished at the time of my visit. The Municipal Building is a unique and ornate building, brilliant in colour and adorned with many statues. A number of stately palms which stand near the building give it a very fine setting. The most beautiful and striking building of all, however, is the magnificent Municipal Theatre, which stands in a conspicuous location at a street intersection, and in spacious dimensions, as well as stately appearance, well rivals the far famed Opera House of Paris. It was built by the municipality and cost several millions of dollars, and is said to have a capacity of twenty thousand persons.

Rio de Janeiro has been transformed. It used to be that the traveller, frightened at the idea of yellow fever, would come here with his ears and brain throbbing from the effects of quinine. He would walk over the city with a smelling bottle under his nose for fear of contagion. Now it is different. Once the home of yellow fever, smallpox and other plagues, this great city has been renovated and overhauled, until now it is as healthful as the average city. The municipal government deserves great credit for the energetic and thorough manner in which this work has been done. Hundreds of miles of underground sewers have supplanted the open gutters of former days, and with the disappearance of the open sewers has vanished the unpleasant odours which formerly pervaded the atmosphere. Low, marshy ground has been filled up. The people were compelled to remove the dirt from the tiles in which moss and fungi had grown, and cement the joints so that there would be nothing to retain dampness. The first floors of all buildings must be made of tile or cement, so that rats can not get into the houses. And then the people scrub and clean, and clean and scrub, in most parts of the city, so that it is a fair rival of a Dutch town. The street cleaning department is alert and active, so that the streets in general are cleaner than the average American city. It is only when one of the heavy rain storms breaks on the city that it is different, and then tons of red sand and mud are washed down from the hills, and the street commissioner has his hands full for a few days to clean up this mud. These tropical rains are veritable downpours, and the amount of water that falls during even a comparatively short rain is almost incredible.

The visitor is first inclined to look lightly upon the brilliant and variegated colourings of the houses and other buildings, and think that it is very much overdone. The longer one stays there, however, the more the colouring seems to be in harmony with the tropics. Such brilliant colours and light, airy effects would be entirely out of place in a land where the trees lost their foliage, and snow covered the ground during a part of the year. But here, where the sky is so blue, where the foliage is ever green and where the sun is so bright, even the light blues and greens, the pinks and terra-cotta colourings on the houses finally seem in harmony. Sometimes, under a porch, one will see a landscape painting on the wall of the house, and many of these paintings are well done. The style of architecture is Portuguese and differs from the Spanish style, which always includes a little court, or patio, in the centre. In the Brazilian homes of the better class, a little green yard is maintained in front of the houses, where a few flowers and shrubs are cultivated, and, if large enough, a palm or two will be found. There is no fine grass, however, such as grows in cooler climes, for the grass found is very coarse and is planted stalk by stalk. A high iron fence generally separates the yard from the street. In some of the better homes with large yards, a little pavilion, or lookout, is built near the street, from which the ladies of the family may view the processions and festas, which are such a common occurrence here. These take the place of the balconies erected for ladies where the houses are built up to the street line as in the Spanish architecture.

The public buildings are scattered over different sections of the city, but most of them not already enumerated are of rather indifferent architecture. The Casa da Moeda (mint), the Congress and Senate buildings, the Navy and War Departments and the President’s Mansion are all in different sections. The latter bears several statues on the roof, and connected with it are some very fine gardens. The National Library contains a valuable collection of more than four hundred thousand books, manuscripts and other important documents. The National Museum is one of the oldest institutions in the capital. Originally intended only as a museum of natural history, it has been extended until now it includes all kinds of collections of scientific interest. It contains a fine collection of specimens of animal and insect life in Brazil, and specimens of the art and handiwork of the aboriginal tribes who still inhabit many sections of the republic.

A splendid system of electric tramways exists under the management of a company composed of American and Canadian capitalists. The routes are rather complicated, and are quite confusing to the visitor at first. The cars are called “bonds,” and the origin of the name is rather curious. When the system was first inaugurated the people, who had heard a great deal about American “bonds” in connection with the negotiations, applied that name to the cars when they finally appeared, and the name has clung to them ever since.

The city of Rio de Janeiro and its environs constitute the Federal District, which is similar to the District of Columbia. The municipal organization is controlled by the national government, but the people are not disfranchised as in our own capital. The inhabitants of the district elect three senators and ten deputies to the National Congress, and also a city council of ten members which meets in session twice each year. The chief executive is the Prefect, who is appointed by the President and holds office for five years, unless previously removed. Under him are several boards, through which the several departments of public work are transacted.

In 1908 there was held in Rio an exposition in celebration of the centennial of the opening of that port, and the other Brazilian ports to the commerce of the world. The federal government appropriated a million dollars for its palace and exhibit, and nearly all of the states erected buildings, and appropriated a goodly sum toward the expenses. The United States and Portugal were the only two foreign nations invited to take a part in the exposition. The location was a most beautiful one at the extreme end of the Beira Mar, and almost under the shadow of old Sugar Loaf and Corcovado. A number of the buildings erected were of a permanent character, and these, as well as many of the state buildings, still stand.

In striking contrast to the Rio of to-day was that of a century ago, when foreign nations were first given the privilege of trading there. The following extracts are made from “Notices of Brazil,” published in 1831 by an English writer:

“When the country was opened to the enterprise of foreigners, it was not at all surprising that the City of Rio and its commerce should have increased with an unexampled rapidity. Such was the avidity of speculation in England, that everything was sent to Brazil without the smallest regard to its fitness or adaptation to the climate, or the wants of the people who were to purchase them. The shops were ransacked and swept; and the consideration was not what should be sent, but how soon could it arrive. In this way, when the multitude of cases were opened at the custom-house, I have been told, the Brazilians could not contain their astonishment and mirth at the incongruous things they saw displayed before them; implements useful only to Canadians and Greenlanders, and comforts and conveniences fit only for polar latitudes, were cased up and sent in abundance to regions between the tropics.

“Among this ingenious selection was a large supply of warm blankets, warming-pans to heat them, and, to complete the climax of absurdity, skates to enable the Brazilians to enjoy wholesome exercise on the ice, in a region where a particle of frost or a flake of snow was never seen. However ridiculous or wasteful this may seem, these incongruous articles were not lost in a new country, where necessity and ingenuity could apply things to a use for which they were never intended by the sage exporters. Even the apparently hopeless and inconvertible skate was turned to a useful purpose. Then, as well as now, there was nothing in the country so scarce as wrought iron for shoeing mules and horses; and though “ferradors,” or smiths, are to be met at every rancho, “ferraduras,” or shoes, are seldom to be had. When the people, therefore, found they could not use these contrivances on their own, they applied them to their horses’ feet; and many an animal has actually travelled on English skates from Rio to Villa Rica.

“The bustle and activity of the place give a high idea of the commerce of Rio. A multitude of negroes are constantly employed, who labour without intermission the whole day in removing packages of different kinds. They are generally lying open, either to be, or after having been examined; and it presents really a curious and interesting spectacle to pass along the courts and warerooms, through manufactures of every kind, and from all parts of the globe.

“Having waded through these, I mounted upstairs, and I saw a multitude of persons hard at work, as if it had been a large factory. These were the stampers: every article, even to a single pair of gloves, stockings or shoes, when the duty is paid, must be distinguished by this stamp. Three or four hundred persons were engaged in this work. One ran the thread through the corner of the stockings or shoes; another looped it to a little perforated pellet of lead; and a third pressed it flat by striking on it a stamp of the Imperial Arms. Any article, however minute, that has not this attachment to it, is liable to be seized as contraband. The process of stamping every article, however, is so tedious and troublesome that it is found to impede business very much, and the fees on the leaden stamp come to twice as much as the duty on the goods in the cost of pieces of tape and other smaller things.”

CHAPTER IV
AROUND AND ABOUT THE BAY

There are many villages large and small, around the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, but few of them are worth the visiting. Nictheroy, however, a twenty minutes’ ride across the bay, is an exception, for the ride is pleasant and this city is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The national capital is situated in a Federal District very similar to the District of Columbia. Ferries run every few minutes, and the trip is a pleasant diversion. The city contains some thirty thousand or more inhabitants, but there is nothing grand or distinctive about it. It has several public squares after the usual fashion, the streets are fairly broad but badly paved, and some of the public buildings are quite respectable. There is a good system of street railways, and a trip can be made out to the rather picturesque suburb of Sacco do San Francisco, or Itajahý, which is also on the shores of the bay. Perhaps the principal reason that takes travellers there is to say that they have been in one of the state capitals, for it is too near the larger and far more attractive city to have much charm when compared with the other. There is a good beach, and it is possible that at some time, perhaps “to-morrow,” a thriving resort may be built up on that side of the blue bay of Rio de Janeiro.

During the empire, because of the many and almost constant scourges of yellow fever, the diplomatic corps became solicitous about their own health and sought a more healthful residence. Receiving the consent of their various governments, and the approval of the Emperor, a new diplomatic residence was established at Petropolis, a two hours’ journey from the capital. This is the only instance known to me where the diplomatic representatives live elsewhere than in the capital of the country to which they are accredited.

The journey to this diplomatic centre is at the present time a combined rail and steamer journey, although within a very short time, and perhaps by the time this work appears, it will be possible to make the journey by rail in a little more than half the time now necessary. If one has the time, however, the combination journey is preferable, because it affords a delightful journey across the blue waters of the bay, past the Fiscal Island with its imposing edifice, near a number of other islands to the Mauá landing where a connection is made with the oldest railway in the republic. The first rails of this line, which is now a part of the Leopoldina System, were laid more than a half century ago. Almost immediately after entering the train the ascent begins, for it is a climb of nearly a thousand metres to this other capital of the country. As the train ascends many new and varying glimpses are caught of the island-studded bay, and even of the city of Rio many miles away, with Corcovado and Tijuca in the background. The cloud effects vary with almost every trip. At times almost the entire bay is seen, and then again, only fleeting glimpses are visible, as you seem to be looking down upon a bed of billowy clouds. When the steepest part of the road is reached the train is divided into small sections, and the upward ascent is aided by the cog system, although very powerful locomotives are used.

A maximum grade of fifteen per cent. is reached in one or two places, which is a very steep climb indeed, and you feel like holding yourself in your seat. Narrow valleys, or rather passes, are traversed and there is some cultivation, but the most of the way is rather a mass of trailing vines and great, branching ferns. Blossoming vines and trees add beauty to the scene, and immense trees loaded with orchids look down upon you in a tantalizing way; detached rocks weighing thousands of tons are poised on the edge of cliffs, and show the glacial effects in these passes. Sometimes the brown and grim rocks rise above you like a mighty wall a thousand or more feet high, as if nature had prepared a natural fort or a gigantic toboggan slide ready for use. The little mountain streams had become swift torrents, when I passed over this road, from the effects of a severe storm that had just broken on these hills. The air becomes much cooler as the elevation increases. At last the Alta da Serra, the top of the mountain, is reached, and from there it is an easy ride down to Petropolis nestling between lofty peaks.

Being the headquarters of a score or more representatives of the world’s powers, Petropolis is an important city. Furthermore, during the hottest season, it is the fashionable summer resort of Brazilian society, and the wealth and gayety of the capital is transferred to this city. From a small agricultural settlement it has grown into a social centre, an educational centre and the site of a number of cotton mills, which are located here because of the abundant water power. The scenery about Petropolis is beautiful, and affords a number of fine drives and horseback jaunts, which are the favourite recreation of the diplomats. It is a combination of the temperate and tropical zones. Your hothouse plants all grow out-of-doors. Rhododendrons are as large as wheat shocks, and the azaleas are so large they do not look natural. Palms are omnipresent, and the orange with its golden fruit ornaments almost every yard.

The last Emperor, Dom Pedro II., had a beautiful home here which is now used as a young ladies’ seminary. There are also a number of other good schools, among which is a school for girls under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. It is situated on the top of a hill above the city. The rooms have lofty ceilings eighteen feet high, its bathroom is as large as the average living-room, and in every way it resembles the palace which it once was, rather than a school building. Yet as one looks around at the American desks, the blackboards, maps, etc., on the walls, the school stamp is readily seen.

The social season lasts from December to May, the Brazilian summer, and during that time the social life is gay, but it is rather dull the rest of the year. The President, and most of his ministers, spend these months here, and Petropolis thus becomes the summer capital. There are many fine homes of Brazilian families, and some of the diplomatic representatives occupy showy quarters. The home of the American Ambassador is a delightful and charming place. The air is remarkably cool, especially in the evening, even when Rio is sweltering. It is quite likely that the official residences of the diplomats will be changed to Rio at some time in the future, since the sanitary conditions have been so improved, and yellow fever is no longer found there, except in an occasional sporadic case such as might occur at some of our own Gulf ports.

There are many notable botanical gardens in the world, but there is only one, in the general consensus of opinion, which is superior to that of Rio de Janeiro, and it is in Buitenzorg, Java. To the northern traveller every park in Rio is a sort of botanical garden, because of the many and new varieties of plants, but a visit to the famous Jardim Botanico, which is reached by one of the “bonds” that start from the Avenida Hotel, is a revelation. The route leads out through a number of narrow streets. At one place a branch line runs to Leme by a tunnel through one of the hills, where a pretty stretch of beach may be seen. It has become quite a favourite resort as well as residence place, and is worth a visit.

Continuing the journey the car passes by a small lake, called Lago Ridrigo de Freitas, which is a fresh water lake, although separated from the sea by only a narrow stretch of land. There are some interesting old country-houses and modern villas, and a number of cotton factories with their rows of workingmen’s houses built on the community plan. Many fine glimpses of Tijuca, the Two Brothers and Corcovado are obtained along the way. At last the avenue of palms grows nearer, the car stops before a gateway of recent construction, and the famous gardens have been reached. Before one’s vision extends a magnificent avenue of lofty royal palms of even height. This avenue, composed of one hundred and fifty palms, set at equal distances apart, and making a green arch almost a hundred feet above ground, makes an imposing picture like a great colonnade, with their white trunks. As you look up the avenue you see two gigantic walls of gray wood, solidly roofed by huge green tufts. It is a living arborescent gallery, enclosing a path about twenty feet wide with a neatly gravelled walk. About half-way across is a fountain in the centre of the avenue, and here is another avenue of palms which runs at right angles to the other, but this avenue is far less imposing than the one just described. The contrast between the lofty palms and some of the pygmy shrubs and flowers is most striking. In one part of the gardens still stands a single palm, a tall, slender shaft one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, which is called the “mother of all the palms.” It was planted in 1808, the year of the foundation of this garden, with elaborate ceremony by the Portuguese regent, and from the seeds of this palm have been grown all the other royal palms in this garden, so it is said. A tablet has been placed on this palm bearing a statement of this fact.

Another feature which is most interesting is the profusion of bamboos, which are found in dense clusters, and also in shady avenues, where the tops are so intertwined that it is impossible for the sun to penetrate through. One begins to appreciate the beauties of the graceful bamboo when seen under such advantageous conditions. Sometimes an avenue is lined for some distance with similar trees, then with others; sometimes with one species on one side of the walk and an entirely different species on the other side; again they are in clumps all alike or all different, an endless variety in grouping. Fine specimens of the rubber trees are to be seen, and one can get a good idea of this tree which yields such a valuable article of commerce to the world of to-day. The clove, nutmeg, cinnamon and other spice-bearing trees, which are many decades old, may be seen, as well as specimens of the tea plant. The “cow tree,” which secretes a fluid that resembles milk, and a tree which, upon being tapped, pours forth a stream of pure, cold water may both be found.

It will not be necessary for one to travel up the Amazon to see the vegetation that grows there, for specimens of almost every species may be found here. Monster trees from the Amazon country which overtop even the lofty royal palms, and reach a height of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet, grow here luxuriantly. Trees with great buttresses, which look like strained muscles, and others, with gigantic vines clinging to them, which are slowly sapping the life out of the friendly tree, grow here, just as they do in the primeval forests. Parasites of every kind may be seen on the trunks, and in the angles formed by the limbs. Some of the trees are almost covered with these parasitic growths. Orchids, which would be almost priceless in the markets of New York, are found blooming here amidst the wild tangle of vines. Specimens of the gigantic lily, called the Victoria Regis, a native of Brazil, and whose leaves measure from ten to twenty feet in diameter, grow in the waters of this same garden. There are also little glimpses of almost virgin forest, that may be seen in the two thousand acres of this treasure-house of botanical specimens. The many shades of green are varied by the colours of the poincetta and other flowers, and in and through all flit birds of many hues, swift flying humming birds and monstrous butterflies. The researches which have been made by the various learned directors of these botanical gardens have proven of inestimable value to the scientific world.

One soon discovers that Rio has more than the seven hills which were boasted by Rome, for there are three times that number that look down upon the bay. A number of these rounded knolls are within the borders of the city itself, and the narrow, winding streets crawl up to the very summit. Others are surmounted by a few houses, while the sides of the hills simply display their red slope to the city. But it is to the suburbs that one must go for the finest views of the city and surrounding country. One of the favourite trips is to Tijuca, the summit of which is almost reached by an electric line, and many of the wealthier people have their summer or all-the-year-round homes on its slopes. As the road climbs up to the summit, many beautiful views are obtained of the scenery surrounding Rio. It is a view of peaks, and valleys and ocean, for very little of the city is visible. The road passes through dense forests, so that one is constantly sheltered from the fierce sun.

Sylvan pathways are flanked with beautiful plants, shrubs and flowers. Leaping cascades are set in veritable flower gardens, and natural labyrinths and grottos abound. The highest point is nearly fourteen hundred feet above sea level. This route is now a favourite automobile drive also, but is not safe to make after heavy rains because of the narrow roadway in many places.

It is, however, to Corcovado that one goes for a magnificent view of Rio and the bay of the same name. This famous hunchback mountain almost overshadows the city and the climb up affords views of dazzling magnificence. It is a great granite cone, precipitous on all sides save one, and an electric line, which follows this slope, now takes the traveller almost to the very summit. Leaving the station in the city, the road first runs over the old and well-preserved Carioca Aqueduct where, for a few blocks, the car runs along high above the red-tiled roofs of the capital city. Then it begins the climb up along the side of the mountain. Now one obtains a view of the bay, and again one looks out over the city to the Serra da Mar mountains in the distance; again it is Tijuca, or the peak of Tingue, that dominates the horizon. The abandoned aqueduct follows the bends of the road and has been broken in many places, for new water pipes now carry the water supply from the original source. An old and famous convent, Santa Theresa, is seen, where husbands used to place their wives for safekeeping when departing on a military expedition. Past hotels, villages and showy private homes the road winds and twists. Finally the line changes to the rack system, as the grade becomes more steep, and at last, after a climb for a few minutes up steps hewed out of the solid rock, the little pavilion is reached that crowns the mountain’s summit. Here beautiful views meet the gaze of the traveller in every direction; mountains on one side, the sea and beautiful bay on the other. On a clear day a panorama of fifty square miles may be seen with the unaided eye. Sheer precipices of more or less bare rock extend down for a distance of fifteen hundred feet or more. A stone merely dropped over the crowning walls would descend to the plains below. It is to the bay that one will turn with most interest. There, in the distance, is the seemingly narrow channel through which all boats must pass on their way to the city. Then nearer to the city is the famous Sugar Loaf, with its curious outline. The blue waters of the bay studded with numerous small islands, the curved shores, the white streaks which mark the cities, and the broad white line, which indicates the Avenida Central and the Beira Mar, acquire a new meaning, and become photographed upon one’s memory in indelible colours; it is then one fully realizes that he is gazing upon one of the most beautiful panoramas that nature has prepared for the delectation of mankind.

CHAPTER V
MINAS GERAES AND MINING

There is another route to Bello Horizonte, the capital of the state of Minas Geraes, but I chose the one through Petropolis, because I was to have the pleasure of the company of the American Embassador. Petropolis was the one time capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. There are other cities in the state of Rio besides Petropolis. Among these are Therezopolis, which occupies a magnificent site on a commanding hill that gives a fine view of the surrounding country, and Nova Friburgo, the oldest immigrant settlement in Brazil. This city was established almost a century ago by a number of Swiss colonists, and is reached by another railway of almost an equal ascent with the route to Petropolis, heretofore described. This little colony has grown into a prosperous settlement and preserves many of the characteristics of the race which founded it.

Boarding the semi-weekly express train at Petropolis, which is here termed “grande velocidade,” we were soon winding around the hills and through the narrow passes threaded by the river. Occasionally little primitive villages and a few unimportant adobe towns picturesquely grouped along the banks of the stream were passed. The scenery is beautiful as pass after pass unfolds itself on the journey down to lower altitudes. One is impressed by the extent of mountainous territory which is encountered by the traveller all over the republic, with the exception of the country traversed by the mighty Amazon and its tributaries. It is a constant surprise to see the vast amount of soil in Brazil that is actually without development. Mile after mile of this land, which is within a comparatively short distance of the capital, had the appearance of never having been occupied by settlers, or ever having been disturbed by agriculturists. Although broken it could well be adapted to the raising of stock, at least for sheep and goats, for these animals would find sustenance. It seemed to me that cattle could be raised profitably also, since it would not be necessary to feed them, as pasture will grow all the year round.

The few natives who did live in the little mud-brick huts, with thatch roofs, that cling to the side of the hills eked out a very poor existence, if one judged by the appearance of everything around their homes. A few chickens and pigs with plenty of dogs, perhaps a mule and a cow, constituted the only stock that one could see. A little patch of corn, a banana stalk or two, and perhaps a patch of mandioca root, seemed to be the only attempt at agriculture of the improvident negro or poor whites who dwell on these beautiful hills. The houses contain only the very crudest of furniture with rude beds and the very simplest of culinary outfit. Nature is perhaps too bountiful, and man depends upon that bounty rather than his own exertions.

The mandioca is a small shrub with a tuberous root that grows in nearly every part of Brazil. It grows to the enormous size of fifteen and twenty pounds, and somewhat resembles an enormous radish or sugar beet. In its natural state it contains a very poisonous juice which must be eliminated before the real substance can be used for food. It is first pressed and then washed, and the water must be thrown away for it is poisonous. The root is then ground into a meal which is very rich in starch. One large root will sometimes produce as much as two gallons of this prepared meal. After being crushed the meal is at once roasted, or otherwise it will turn sour and be spoiled. Tapioca is one of the products of this tropical tuber. The utilization of this root was first discovered by the Indians, who found a method of getting rid of the poisonous qualities. To-day, the mandioca, or farina, flour is one of the principal articles of food in Brazil, not only among the poorer classes but also with the well-to-do. Many of the articles served on the hotel tables are thickened with the mandioca meal. This, with rice and beans, furnishes the almost exclusive food of the poor. On the railway trains one will see that this meal comprises one of the chief articles of the lunches which have been brought by one’s fellow passengers.

It is perhaps wrong to think only of the practical in the midst of scenes of natural beauty, but as our train whirled along with its grande velocidade, past rapids which could be converted into incalculable power for the manufacturing so essential in the world, I could not refrain from thinking what fine power was here going to waste. A little of it is utilized in generating electricity for the cities of Nictheroy and Petropolis, and there are a few cotton mills run by the water power of this stream. Not one unit of the available power is utilized, however, although in this land of expensive fuel there is a great call for electric power and current. At last the Parahyba River, a still finer stream of water, is reached and the railroad follows up this stream. At Entre Rios (which means “between the rivers”) a change is made from the Leopoldina Railway to the Central, which is a government line. After a couple of hours the train reaches Juiz de Fora, which is the largest town in the state of Minas Geraes. In 1867 Juiz de Fora was described by a writer as a town with “a single dusty or muddy street, or rather road, across which palms are planted in pairs.”

At the present time this city contains a population of perhaps twenty-five or thirty thousand people. It is in a region of great productiveness, and in a mild and semi-tropical climate. The surrounding hilly country forms a rich and extensive coffee district, and is also very favourable to the growth of corn and beans, as well as other products. Cattle raising is also an important industry. It is a comparatively modern town, and its streets are laid out much wider than the older towns. There are several colleges here, and the public schools are unusually good, so that the number of educated persons is exceeded by few places in the entire republic. Several small manufacturing industries have been established to make use of the rapids in the Parahyba River which flows through the city.

About a ten hours’ journey in a northerly direction from Juiz de Fora lies Bello Horizonte, the new capital of the state of Minas Geraes. After leaving Juiz de Fora the railroad climbs the higher altitudes, and it is not long until the coffee region is left behind. The atmosphere becomes cooler and more exhilarating as the altitude increases. Like most of the cities Bello Horizonte is built in a valley surrounded by hills, with a river running through it. It is a city made to order, for the site was selected only sixteen years ago. At that time there was scarcely a habitation on the chosen site, but the location seemed to please the government and so it was decided to erect a city to be used as a capital. Like La Plata, in Argentina, it is a city built after an architect’s designs, and, because of the elaborate plans made for it, was given the name “bello,” which signifies beautiful. It has been likened by the enthusiastic Brazilians to our own city of Washington, because of its broad avenues and many plazas, and the modern style of its buildings. The principal avenue, Affonso Penna, named after the late President, who founded this city while he was President of the state, is one hundred and fifty feet broad, and has a triple row of shade trees its entire length. The public buildings are attractive because of their newness, and are a radical departure from most of the public buildings that one may see in Brazil. A magnificent palace for the executive has been erected, and a number of buildings for the legislature and other branches of the government. The city is well lighted and is altogether a bright and cheery place.

The state of Minas Geraes is one of the largest and most important states in Brazil. It is larger than France and contains a population of more than four millions of people. It derives its names from its mineral wealth, for Minas Geraes signifies general mines. It has within its borders many mines, and possesses the oldest gold mine in the country. There are many small towns but no large cities, so that most of the population dwell in small villages. Much of this state, like many of the others, is still undeveloped, and railroads have not yet penetrated large sections of it.

This state has the honour of having struck the first blow for freedom from the oppressive rule of Portugal. Joachim José de Silva Xavier is the traditional hero of this event in Brazil. This patriot was a travelling dentist and, because of his occupation, was nicknamed Tiradentes, which means “to draw teeth.” He belonged to a club of men who had banded together for patriotic purposes. Spurred on by the success of the American revolution, and angered by the attempt of the mother country to impose iniquitous taxes upon the colony, these men met in secret for many months. Tiradentes in his trips around the country preached his revolutionary doctrine, and many new adherents were added to their cause. The wandering dentist was probably not the originator of the various schemes of this body of dreamers, for far abler men than he were among them, but he probably did more to spread the doctrine than any of the others. At length, in 1789, before their plans were fully matured, the plot was discovered, and the leaders were arrested in Ouro Preto, at that time the capital, and thrust into prison in that city. They were imprisoned in dark and damp cells for many months, pending the trial and decision of the matter.

Each one of the conspirators was finally condemned to death, but all escaped this extreme penalty through influential connections, except the unfortunate Tiradentes. He was made the scapegoat of the whole affair, and was executed in the public square of Ouro Preto, on the 21st of April, 1792. His body was quartered and the head exposed in that city. The right arm and leg, and also the left arm and leg, were each sent to different cities, there to be exposed publicly as a warning to other possible conspirators. His house was torn down and the ground salted to purify it; and it was ordered that no building ever again be constructed on that tainted soil. His property was confiscated; his family and their descendants were declared “infamous” and disgraced, even to the third generation. To-day, the name of Tiradentes is honoured all over Brazil, monuments have been erected to him and streets named after him in many cities. In the principal plaza of Ouro Preto is a marble column, upon which stands a statue of the martyred “tooth-puller.” The pedestal of this monument is the original stone on which he was exposed in a pillory and publicly scourged, on the very spot on which now stands his splendid monument. Many of the places connected with this conspiracy are preserved; and even the spot on which stood the house of Tiradentes, which was destroyed by order of the government, is sacredly preserved and guarded for the patriotic lessons which it teaches.

A branch of the Central Railroad runs from the main line back among the hills to this city of Ouro Preto, the “black gold.” It lies in the hollow of a narrow valley and is completely surrounded by high, rock-capped hills. All about the hills are the rough, red and gray, yellow and brown holes made by the old miners, which have been enlarged and washed by the rains. The roughly paved streets ascending and descending the hills are narrow, crooked and irregular. Carts and carriages are of little use, and the freight is generally carried on the backs of pack mules. One can see building timbers, stones, flour and water thus carried through the streets of Ouro Preto on almost any day.

Although gold mining in Brazil never reached the proportions it did in Mexico and Peru, it was no inconsiderable factor in the early development of the country. As early as the middle of the sixteenth century, parties of intrepid pioneers had penetrated several hundred miles into the interior. They found auriferous ground in some of the streams in what is now the state of Minas Geraes. As soon as the news reached the settlements other parties of explorers followed, and the tablelands, mountains and streams of this district were overrun from São Paulo to the south and from Bahia on the east. One can not help but admire the rugged courage of these sturdy prospectors, who set out into the tractless forests and moorlands in search of the yellow metal. They bridged rivers, enslaved the Indians and dotted the province with little settlements. It was not long until a small but steady stream of gold was trickling across the sea to Portugal. The crown exacted a tax of twenty per cent. on the entire output, and this naturally led to a great deal of smuggling.

Because of this surreptitious mining it is impossible to give the entire output of the gold mines of this province. Official records, however, show that between the years 1700 and 1820, no less than thirty million ounces having a value of more than $500,000,000 were produced. Legends of the fabulous production of certain mines are recounted, and a few mines were worked for more than a century.

Because of the crude methods in use, and the difficulty of working them at great depths, many of the mines were abandoned before they were really exhausted. One of the principal mines now worked is the Morro Velho, which was operated in a desultory way for a long time by the colonial settlers. In 1818 it was pronounced exhausted. A few years later this mine was reopened and has been worked by an English company ever since, and is still producing a profitable output. It has now reached a great depth. Gold is found nearly all over the state of Minas, although the production to-day is not so great as in the earlier days. A great deal of it is low grade ore, which can be worked profitably only with the latest improved machinery, so that not only the cost of operation can be reduced to a minimum but the greatest percentage of the gold and silver may be extracted from the gravel and quartz.

Many other minerals are found in this state, but few of them are worked. There are a number of iron outcrops reported which are said to be composed of almost pure ore. Copper has been found in Minas, as well as in several other states, although little exploitation has been done, and platinum is also mined. Brazil contains the largest mines of manganese ore that have yet been discovered. This metal promises to be of more value in the future. Monazite, an essential element in the manufacture of mantles for incandescent gas lights, is mined in large quantities and shipped to Europe.

Many precious stones are found in Brazil. Among them are amethysts, tourmalines, aquamarines, topaz—and, lastly, the diamond. India was the original source of diamonds. In 1728, almost two centuries ago, these precious stones were first discovered in Brazil. For a century and a half Brazil held the absolute supremacy in the production of diamonds, until the discovery of the South African fields transferred the centre of the diamond industry to that region. Although the number of diamonds of Brazil to-day is far less than those of South Africa, it is said by experts that the Brazilian diamonds have a far larger proportion of what are classed as the “first water,” those which have a tinge of bluish steel in them, than any other country, and the diamonds of that country bring the very highest market price.

The centre of the diamond industry in Brazil is at Diamantina, in the state of Minas Geraes, although these precious stones are also found in the states of Motto Grosso, Bahia, Goyaz, and Paraná. Heretofore the methods of mining diamonds in Brazil have been of the very crudest sort, the same that have been used almost from the time of the first discovery. Just recently American capital has purchased the leading mines, and modern dredging machinery has been installed, as well as machinery for the separation of the gravel products from the diamonds. These machines are run by water power generated from the streams along which the diamonds are found. This will revolutionize the diamond industry in Brazil, and the possibilities are that the production of diamonds in that country will be greatly increased.

There is, and has always been, a fascination about the diamond. Not only is it unrivalled for lustre, brilliancy and fire, but it is so hard that no known substance can cut it or make the slightest indentation save, another diamond. The popular saying that it takes a diamond to cut a diamond is literally true. Furthermore, it is composed of pure carbon, and is thus related to two of the commonest of substances, coal and graphite. The appearance of the diamond when first picked up is very different from its appearance after the skillful cutter and polisher have done their work, for it is very dull and the non-expert would probably not recognize it.

The discovery of the diamonds in Brazil was by accident. In searching for gold and silver some singular stones, supposed to be pebbles, were discovered. The negro labourers were attracted by their uncommon qualities and geometric forms, and showed them to their masters. In the card games which were popular in the mining camps these pebbles had been used for counters. At length, an officer, who had been in India, and had seen the diamonds of that country, suspicioned their real nature. Upon a comparison of the weight with other pebbles he found a great difference. As a result some were sent to Lisbon to be examined, from whence they were forwarded to Holland, and the Hollanders pronounced them to be real diamonds. It has been estimated that during the one hundred and eighty-one years since the discovery of diamonds, Brazil has produced two and one-half metric tons of these valuable stones, or twelve million carats. The value of the production each year amounts to about one million dollars of actual value. This is small in comparison with the mines of South Africa, but no such force or vitality has been expended in the mining. And yet the production is much simpler. The diamantiferous fields of South Africa have required the most expensive machinery, and every device that human ingenuity could devise for the successful extraction of the diamonds. In Brazil, so far as discovered, the diamond deposits are all alluvial and are found on the surface, and in or along the beds of rivers. Hence no deep mining is necessary as in Africa. These river gravels also contain a considerable amount of gold, which helps to pay the cost of dredging. The primitive processes in use are very similar to those in use in placer gold washing. The gravel is dug out and placed in small wooden bowls. The miners then proceed to a convenient place on the stream and laboriously wash out their material, gradually getting rid of the particles not wanted. Sometimes a pit is excavated, and a part of the stream diverted into it for the washing process.

Although no diamonds have been found in Brazil as large as some of the extraordinary gems that have been unearthed in the Kimberly mines, some beautiful and large stones have been discovered. One of these, called the “Regent of Portugal,” weighed two hundred and fifteen carats, and has been estimated to be worth more than a million dollars. It is now numbered among the French state jewels. Another was the “Star of the South,” which was found by a negress who was at work in the mines near Diamantina. This diamond weighed in the rough two hundred and fifty-four and one-half carats, but when cut was reduced to one hundred and twenty-five carats. It is a fine stone of first quality. A large one was discovered in 1908 which was one and one-third inches long and three-quarters of an inch in width, which would make it of extraordinary size.

The discovery of the Braganza diamond is an interesting story. This was in 1791. Three men who had been convicted of capital offences were sent out into exile among the Indians and wild beasts. As they were forbidden to enter any city, or hold any communication with the world, they searched for treasure. While washing for gold in the Abaite River, they were attracted by the gleam of a curious stone. As diamond washing was prohibited they took the stone to a priest. He ventured to lead them to the governor, and the diamond was presented to him. At the request of the priest the three men were pardoned, but the government retained the gem.

The black diamonds, called “carbonados,” are found in greater quantities in Brazil than in any other country. These are used solely for commercial purposes in making points for drills. They are as hard as the other diamonds, but lack the transparency and brilliancy of the white stones. The “carbonados” are found in much larger sizes than the others, one of three thousand and seventy-eight carats having been discovered. These stones have a considerable value and are worth from $25 to $75 per carat, the price depending upon the demand and supply. Nothing has ever been discovered that is so good for drilling hard rocks as the diamond drills made from these “carbonados,” and they have been successfully used in drilling many railroad tunnels.

CHAPTER VI
A PROGRESSIVE STATE

It is a distance of three hundred miles from Rio to São Paulo, the second city in the republic, and the ride is very interesting, especially so for the first two or three hours. This time is taken by the railway line to climb over the ridge of mountains, which everywhere pass close to the shore. For some time after leaving the Central station in Rio, the train passes through the city and suburban towns, over which a good and frequent suburban service is run. Then a strip of rather low land gives the traveller a fairly good view of a Brazilian forest of small trees and undergrowth, matted together with parasites, and forming an almost compact mass of green in which many orchids may be seen. Fairly well cultivated fields are passed at intervals until the ascent begins at Belem, from which time there is very little cultivation. Some grand glimpses of mountain scenery are revealed as the train turns around bends and emerges from one or another of the numerous tunnels along the line. Mountains, hills and valleys, flowing streams and cascades, mingle in a panorama of wonderful beauty. At Barra do Pirahy the São Paulo road branches off from the line to Bello Horizonte, and gradually descends to lower levels.

Much of the land, as the slopes become less steep, has been cultivated in the past with coffee, but it is now abandoned. Dead, or nearly dead, coffee trees are still standing amidst the wild growth that has sprung up since the land was abandoned. This part of Minas Geraes was at one time regarded as one of the richest coffee sections in Brazil, and would be valuable land even to-day were it not for the improvident and wasteful methods of the average planter. The trees were planted too thick, and no effort made to place back in the soil any of the elements taken out. It was considered cheaper to buy virgin soil in a new location than to do anything to build up the land already owned. The same thing is seen in other parts of Minas Geraes and the state of Rio de Janeiro, the latter being the state in which was originally grown the famous “Rio” coffee.

The road follows the Parahyba River most of the way, sometimes on one bank and again on the other. The valleys become broader, although occasionally a cut is made through an interesting ridge. The towns are more numerous and larger during the last hundred miles. The Italian element grows more pronounced, and many Italians may be seen at the stations and on the trains. Ox teams drawing clumsy carts seem to be the principal conveyances for freight, and two-wheeled carriages of an antiquated type, which must have been the originals of the London hansom cabs, convey the passengers. At one station an old style automobile was sandwiched in between these two classes of vehicles, and it seemed strangely out of place, except that the automobile was as antiquated for that class of conveyances as the others were in their line.

Immense ant hills dot the landscape in many places. These hills are oftentimes from three to four or five feet in height, and look strangely like old-fashioned bee hives with their rounded tops. The red dust sifts in through the car windows in clouds. As the windows must be kept closed on this account, one is given a turkish bath under very disadvantageous circumstances. Furthermore, no matter how hot it is, the sweltering traveller is not permitted to remove his coat, as that is a breach of etiquette not allowed here. I tried it and was immediately requested very politely to put it on. You may expectorate on the floor as much as you like, but to remove your coat—“No, Senhor; it is against the rules of the company.”

The dust is caused by the red clay which is used as a ballast here because it is found all along the line, and is cheaper than stone. A few coffee fields are passed, and then we enter a valley many miles broad, and one has his first glimpse of really level land in Brazil. At length, after eleven hours’ ride, the train rolls into the Norte station of the City of São Paulo, and the carigadores begin their struggle for your luggage. Then, after being released from their clutches, you are turned over to the tender mercies of the cabman, and the traveller welcomes the comfort of a bath in his hotel to get rid of the dust of travel.

The city of São (pronounced Sah-o, with a nasal sound after the a) Paulo is the second city in the republic in population and commercial importance. It is situated on a plain with low hills upon the entire horizon. Its population is in the neighbourhood of three hundred and fifty thousand. Although little coffee is produced within fifty miles of São Paulo, yet it is the centre of that trade, and the great increase in the production has caused the wonderful growth of this city. It is more like an American city than any of the other Brazilian towns, because, in whatever direction one looks, the high smoke-stacks of some of the many factories may be seen. The suburbs are many and new, and everywhere are signs of building activity and the construction of public improvements. The growth of the city has really been marvellous. Twenty years ago São Paulo was a comparatively unimportant city of twenty-five thousand people. Now it has grown and broadened out until it covers a wide territory. Real estate values have increased until to-day real estate on Rua São Bento, or Rua Quinze de Novembro (15th of November), is almost as high as on the principal streets in similar towns of the United States. It has become the distributing and manufacturing centre for this, the most progressive state in the republic. The temperature of São Paulo may have something to do with the energetic character of the people. Although the latitude is not much different from Rio, its altitude of more than 2,000 feet renders the climate very agreeable. I was there in the middle of their summer, and, although the days were quite warm, the nights were delightfully cool, and blankets were very comfortable on one’s bed.