The negroes, just as in our own land, were originally brought to Brazil and sold in bondage. The first slaves were imported into the state of Bahia in 1574. Just seventeen years later the official records give the population of that settlement as two thousand whites, four thousand negro slaves and six thousand civilized Indians. This will give a little idea of how rapidly the negroes were brought into the country by the slave traders. Great sugar plantations were worked, and on these were employed the cheap labour. The black slaves so exceeded in number the whites that insurrections broke out in many places. In Minas Geraes, for instance, out of a population of fifty thousand in the early part of the eighteenth century, thirty-five thousand were negro slaves, and most of these recent imports. Some of the whites were so fearful of their own lives, that the governor petitioned the King to put into execution the “Black Code,” which meant that the right leg of a fugitive slave might be cut off and a wooden one substituted. Thus, by terror, the excess of blacks was kept in subjection.

The proportion of black population is much greater in the northeastern states than elsewhere. As one journeys south they become less numerous, until, when you reach the extreme southern states, they are uncommon. In the state of Bahia, those with a negro admixture far outnumbered the whites. This is due not only to the fact that slavery was first introduced there, but also because it was sooner abolished in that state, and fugitive slaves escaping from the coffee plantations fled there, just as they did to our own Northern states. Those who were able to buy their freedom in other states went there as well as those who were voluntarily freed by their masters, as thousands were all over Brazil. In Minas Geraes perhaps one-third of the population have negro blood in their veins.

When slavery was finally abolished, in 1888, there were perhaps seven hundred and fifty thousand slaves in the empire, the most of these being held in the coffee producing states. In São Paulo to-day the negro population is very small, as it is said that the former slaves soon became decimated by the excesses in which they indulged when freedom was gained. In the whole republic perhaps very near to one-half the entire population has at least a trace of negro blood in their veins. The mixture is very marked in the north, and down as far as Rio de Janeiro, and almost to São Paulo. There is, however, no race prejudice that I could perceive. In schools I saw kinky-haired boys and girls side by side with the whites, and in all public places they mingled freely. Negro lawyers and doctors appeared to be patronized by the whites, and their families seemed to have friends among all classes. Officially, at least, there is no distinction, and men have occupied the highest offices in the republic, who unmistakably had a trace of the negro blood. Americans, who live there, as well as some native Brazilians, tell me that there is a growing prejudice among those free from the negro blood against that race, and even the slightest mixture of it, until it has now become very noticeable in many ways, and is even making itself felt in political circles. I am making this statement solely upon the authority of those who live there, and ought to know better than a traveller; but, as for myself, I saw no evidence whatever of such a state of public sentiment.

Says Dr. Hale in his book, “The South Americans,” “I was invited one evening to a small dinner-party at which we were to meet Senhorita X——, a young lady freshly launched into society, whose musical talent was exceptional, even in this land naturally so gifted with love of both poetry and music. I was the only one of the guests who had not met her, so that she was smothered with greetings before I was presented; but when my turn came, I was astonished to find before me what we would call a mulatto—kinky hair, thick lips and prominent teeth. There was not the least trace of embarrassment in her or the rest of the company. She sat opposite me at table, played for us later some brilliant piano pieces, and kissed all the ladies good-bye with so much ease that was absolutely impossible to conceive any difference among us on account of race.”

The next largest foreign element is the Italian, of whom there are two million or more. They readily adapt themselves to Brazil, because of the similarity of customs and language. They are frugal and industrious, and are gradually acquiring wealth and power. A great influence has also been wielded by the German colonists who flocked to Southern Brazil in great numbers, about the middle of last century. There are perhaps nearly one-half million of this stock. They have not progressed as have the Germans in the United States, perhaps because a living came too easily, and nature was too bountiful. The majority of them went to Brazil after the revolution of 1848, and one can trace many of the settlements by the names of the towns. They do not intermingle or intermarry with the Brazilians like the other colonists, and one can find whole communities where no one understands the Portuguese language. They are citizens of Brazil, and yet take little interest in the body politic, neither caring for the position of alderman or policeman.

It is the Portuguese element in Brazil, of course, that are the most interesting, and there is at least a remnant of the pure Portuguese left. And they have many good and excellent qualities. As a race they frequently lack what Americans term the practical element, but they have some of the finer traits, frequently missing in our own people. They have an innate courtesy which is sometimes almost overwhelming. If the same thing was done by an Anglo-Saxon, in the same profuse manner, it would be looked upon as overdone; but, coming from a Brazilian, it is done with such a grace and smoothness that seems only natural. You are greeted with an exquisite courtesy, especially after one or two meetings, and the parting is a series of courtesies. You shake hands about half a dozen times before finally separating, then pause and turn as you reach the door and make a final bow before leaving the room; and this final courtesy is always awaited by your host. If friends separate, or meet after an absence, they fall into one another’s arms and mutually pat each other on the back as a mark of affection. This is never done upon first acquaintance. It is a slow ceremony when there is a large list to be greeted, but it is faithfully gone through with; first a hand shake, and then the embrace if the intimacy warrants it.

The street car conductor hands you your ticket with a little courtesy, and even the hotel servant, and they are always men, finds time to say obligado (much obliged), when you hand him the gratuity he expects as a matter of right. The carigador at the station, who carries your baggage to the train, may haggle with you over the price, but when the affair is settled he courteously tips his hat and wishes you a bom viaje, which means “a pleasant voyage.” If you remove your coat on the train, or enter a first-class car without wearing a collar and tie, the conductor reproves you with a little courtesy, as though he was performing a very unpleasant duty. The clerk in the store never hurries you in making your purchases, but patiently places himself at your disposition. And so it is as you travel all through the country, there is courtesy present everywhere, and you can not help but like the people for these traits.

They might also teach us something in their philosophical outlook upon life. The doctrine of “don’t hurry” and “don’t worry” is deeply rooted, and gives them greater enjoyment in life than among a race whose nerves are continually on edge. They resent any assumption of superiority, but recognize freely and generously the good qualities of the Anglo-Saxon. There is a lax moral tone on the part of the men which could be much improved, and which would greatly benefit the country at large.

In the homes that I visited excellent taste was shown in the furnishing and decorations. There was only one arrangement that grew painfully monotonous. In the reception room a couch was always placed against the wall, and the chairs for guests invariably placed at right angles to this, a row at each end. This gives the host or hostess a chance to see each guest, and the favoured one is invited to share it with her, or possibly to occupy it alone. The chairs are oftentimes stiff and uncomfortable, but it is bad taste to move them, or twist around in them, as Americans are often accustomed to do. The house is yours for the time being. As one man told me in broken English, “your house” and “your friend.” And it was my house, at least I was welcome in it; and he was my friend, I am pleased to say, for he proved it. When you are going away in Brazil, your friends always accompany you to the station, no matter how far away or how early in the morning. I must admit it is a pretty custom, and makes you feel that friends are a good thing to have. I have had Brazilian friends, of only a few days’ standing, perform this little courtesy, men of prominence and influence, and I confess that it reaches a tender place in my heart.

The Brazilian women are handsome in their youth. Their bright eyes and dark features at that age are very fascinating. Especially in Rio their physique is much better than that of the men, for the “stronger sex” in that city are mostly narrow-shouldered and rather thin-chested. The women dress with good taste, but their styles have no uniqueness about them, for they wear the same high-heeled, uncomfortable-looking shoes, and the same large Parisian-shaped hats that have driven men to despair the world over. As their years increase, however, they have a tendency to become stout, due perhaps to hearty eating and lack of exercise. I must say that the Brazilians are particularly fond of eating, and in this hot climate will devour much more food, and especially meat, than those from colder climes; and, in addition, they seldom eat the noon breakfast, or dinner, without at least half a bottle of light wine of some kind.

At Rio, and in Northern Brazil, the women are subject to all the social restrictions that have ever been the lot of women in Latin countries. The young women can not go out unaccompanied by an older woman or the family servant, and in the social life there is nothing of what American women would term freedom. They perhaps do not miss this so much, for it has been the custom of the race for generations untold. At São Paulo, and some of the other southern states, there is a noticeable breaking away from the centuries-old traditions, due, perhaps, to foreign influence. There one can see even young Brazilian ladies out alone on a shopping tour; and, although there is not freedom of association among young people of the two sexes, the beginning of the change is apparent, and I would not be surprised to see even a radical change in this respect in another decade or two. The women there are beginning to feel the narrowness of their lives, and to long for the freedom which they see the young people of other nationalities enjoy. One will likewise find women employed in some of the stores, and occasionally, in other public positions in the cities of that state.

It is true that political ideals in Brazil are not so lofty as they should be. If the reports of investigation committees are true in our own land, however, our own stables need a little looking after. There is undoubtedly more “graft” in Brazil than with us. Nevertheless, the Brazilians are not without ideals. The development of the artistic in parks and buildings is a convincing proof of this. The officials demand work to be up to specifications, and then want their “graft” to be over and above this, instead of the American practice of “skinning the job” to accomplish the same end. This is their system, and there is generally not so much coarse juggling as sometimes happens with us. Bankruptcy is not so common as with us, and bills contracted by private individuals are generally paid. The men are reprehensible in their private conduct, but the women are generally good.

Said an American to me, who has lived in that country for forty years, and who is the best judge of Brazilian character that I know: “The Brazilian women, those who have not the mixture of negro blood, are good and pure, and in them lie the great hope of the race.” They are domestic, are the mothers of large families, and nowhere is there a sincerer love for their children shown than by these Brazilian women. In Rio there is a fast set, just as there is in every large city where there is wealth, and an idle class, and where every opportunity exists for the indulgence in vice. In the lower classes, and there are practically only two classes in Brazil, looseness in the sexual relation is very common and the percentage of illegitimacy is high. It is not looked down upon, and neither the unfortunate children nor their mothers receive social ostracism.

The upper classes of the Brazilians are a well educated and cultivated people. Most of them have been schooled in France, and speak the French language almost as fluently as their own. In Paris there is always a goodly sized Brazilian colony, and the boats passing between Rio and Europe always carry a number of Brazilians to and from that European capital. They find the atmosphere of the French capital more congenial, and full of the simpatica which means so much to the Latin people. The girls who go abroad for education are all sent to the convents of France, but many boys are now sent to schools in the States, especially for a technical education. Those who do go come back enthusiastic over the United States, and many of them bring back American wives, much to the discomfiture of the parents.

An aristocracy exists which can yet be traced, and it is an aristocracy of wealth. It divides, with a sharp distinction, the aristocracy from the labouring element. It is perhaps unreasonable to expect the classes developed by a monarchical form of government to disappear so soon, for the spirit was imbued in the dozen or more generations preceding the present one. Among that class it was considered a disgrace to labour with one’s hands, and this fact has made politics and the holding of political positions a profession. This weakness in politics is, in my opinion, one of the evils of Brazil. It becomes a business and a passion with the men, even in a more intense degree than in our own land. The young man must first secure the title of doctor, and every professional man, physician, lawyer, civil engineer, teacher, etc., receives this title.[1] Then he must obtain some government appointment. Finally, when his own prestige becomes great enough, he seeks election to some office. To politics can be blamed the lack of advancement in many lines.

Said one of the wealthiest and most progressive business men in Rio de Janeiro, himself a Brazilian, to me: “Politics are the curse of the country. It is all words and delay. The politicians like to talk about their great country. They boast that the Amazon is the greatest river in the world, so large that the Mississippi dwindles into an insignificant stream in comparison; that Rio is the finest harbour in the world and capable of floating all the navies in existence; and that Brazil has the greatest undeveloped natural resources in the world. When any of the resources are developed, however, it is not these men who help to do it, but it is the foreigner who sees the opportunity and grasps it. Congress meets and talks politics, instead of passing the necessary legislation. They want to subsidize everything instead of giving competition a chance. I am past sixty years of age, and it has been that way ever since I can remember.” This is quite a severe arraignment of the evils of politics, but it was exemplified during my own visit. The regular session of Congress came to an end in October, and a special session was at once convened, because the necessary appropriation bills had not been passed. This was just a few days before the special service must adjourn, and no progress had then been made. Long speeches were made, but most of the talk was regarding the two candidates for the presidency. As this was the first time in the history of the country that there had been two active candidates for this high office, the senators and deputies spent their time arguing the merits of their respective candidates. The Congress had then been in continuous session for almost nine months.

Another unfortunate condition and characteristic is the dependence upon what Americans would term “pull,” or influence. Even the well qualified young man depends more upon that than upon the real qualifications he possesses. So many are looking for “soft snaps” that it becomes absolutely necessary to provide them. I heard of this from so many sources, both native and foreign, that I am fully impressed with its evil. It is even customary in educational institutions for students, who have not been diligent, to bring to their professors at examination time letters of recommendation from influential persons, stating why this particular student should be passed or given his degree. Foreign teachers soon shut down upon this method, and it has had a beneficial effect in their schools. Any work that is done under a concession must have a government inspector on the payrolls, and the man appointed is frequently one who knows nothing about the work, but draws his salary. A college must have a government inspector, who has nothing in particular to do except that he must attend the examinations, and no degree is granted without his approval. This inspector may or may not be qualified for the position, but the salary of three hundred milreis per month from the college makes it a nice political appointment, for it is practically a sinecure.

The Brazilians are ambitious, but a lack of energy interferes with what they otherwise might accomplish. In many of the government departments and industries foreigners are employed at large salaries, which might just as well be filled by natives, if the young men would only qualify themselves. Very many of the agricultural schools and experimental stations are in the charge of foreigners, Americans, Belgians, French and German. They are rather fanciful and visionary in their plans, and will not begin at the bottom as is necessary. They would rather build the superstructure first, for that is the showy part. It is perhaps the innate ambition, however, that will finally lead the country out of the rut. They are willing to be led but cannot be driven.

“There is no public opinion in Brazil,” said one of the most influential and ablest men in Brazil, a man who has travelled extensively and made a study of other nations. “The masses do not think. The politicians plan and carry out things themselves and create the opinion.” This strikes me as being true. Politicians are the same everywhere, and here they have practically a free hand. A large percentage of the population are not able to read or write, and the percentage of those who do take an interest in politics is small. They say that there is no use; but it is a bad precedent. In every state there is a small clique who rule the politics of that state. If a man announces himself as a candidate for president, for instance, these wise men get together and announce their positions; and this announcement is everywhere taken without question, as the choice of the state. No political ring in the United States has ever been able to wield such absolutely despotic power as these cliques. There the voters will occasionally wake up and smash the corrupt machine, while in Brazil the elections are usually merely perfunctory occasions that must be gone through with. This does not mean that every one of these machines is bad, for many of the men who have this power use it for the benefit of the people, and have done much to advance the interests of the masses. To them great credit should be given, for, having it in their power to do absolutely as they wish, they have the courage and honesty to use this power in the interest of the people, just as much as if they had secured it from the people by a popular suffrage. Out of the eighteen million people in the country there are perhaps six hundred thousand qualified to vote, and there have never been more than four hundred thousand votes cast in any presidential election.

The people enjoy play, and always welcome “festa” occasions. Holidays are numerous and all join in their celebration. Brazil has two independence days, the 7th of September and the 15th of November, which are national holidays and universally celebrated. The carnival season, however, which occurs the week preceding Lent, is the occasion of the greatest merrymaking. It lasts for three whole days in Rio de Janeiro, and, during that time, business is wholly suspended in the cities. There are processions with music, and the streets are full of people in mask and gown, who dance and sing and blow horns and make disagreeable noises in general. Disguised in dominoes and masks they blow their horns, talk in falsetto voices, while the balconies and windows are filled with crowds of onlookers, women and children being especially prominent. Few people wear their best clothes, for it is the custom to squirt perfumed water over passers-by from these balconies. This perfumed water is contained in little leaden vials, which are sold at stands all over the city. The streets are hung with the banners of all nations, little flags and coloured lanterns, and have all the appearance of a gala occasion.

On the last of the three days a grand procession is held. It is a procession of mounted military bands, men and women in ancient costume, immense floats, papier-mache figures, grotesque animal representations, men burlesquing women actresses, and women dressed as pages. King Carnival, upon a gorgeous throne, is always a part of the procession. The procession winds in and around one street after another, along the Avenida Central and the Beira Mar, and often takes hours to pass a given point. At night masquerade balls at the various theatres end the gaieties. The galleries and boxes are always filled with an interested audience, but the floor is given up to revelry and suggestive dancing, which would not merit the approval of polite society.

CHAPTER XI
EDUCATION AND THE ARTS

The educational facilities in Brazil are not of the best in the republic as a whole. In some of the states, such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and a part of Minas Geraes, the provisions are fairly good, but in none of them has the work been systematized in the same way that it has in our own land. Until the establishment of the republic the instruction was almost entirely in the hands of the church, but the duty now rests upon the various states and municipalities. Statistics upon education in Brazil are very unreliable, just as are their census reports, so that whatever or whosesoever figures are followed there will be errors. It is perhaps safe to say that not over twenty-five per cent. of the total population are able to read and write.

The government has issued a volume which gives the figures of school enrolment of the various states, which is the first attempt on the part of the federal government to give educational statistics. In a few of the states, so the official report says, the estimates of school enrolment are not complete, since it was impossible to secure complete returns from some of the rural districts, but in the main they may serve to give a fairly adequate idea of the educational facilities in the republic; at any rate, they are the best figures that are obtainable. The figures include all schools, whether of public or private character, state or municipal. The total number of primary schools reported is eleven thousand one hundred and forty-seven, of which one thousand eight hundred and fifteen are public municipal schools, seven thousand and eighty nine public schools under state control, and mostly in the smaller towns and villages, and two thousand two hundred and forty-five private schools, most of which are in the larger towns and cities. The state schools, which are improperly designated as rural schools, have an enrolment of three hundred and forty thousand six hundred and ninety-seven, and an attendance of two hundred and forty thousand six hundred and ninety. The municipal schools have an enrolment of one hundred and six thousand seven hundred and fifty-four, and an attendance of sixty-nine thousand four hundred and thirty-two. Private primary schools have an enrolment of one hundred and ten thousand eight hundred and forty-one, and an attendance of eighty-one thousand and sixty-six. Of the three hundred and twenty-seven secondary institutions twenty-nine are public and two hundred and ninety-eight under private control, the former having an enrolment of four thousand and the latter of twenty-six thousand two hundred and fifty-eight. No figures of the actual attendance at these institutions were given, but it would probably not be much less than the enrolment. If these government figures are correct, and the population is twenty million five hundred and fifteen thousand as claimed, in that same report, then scarcely three per cent. of the population may be regarded as enjoying school privileges. This estimate takes on new significance when one considers that the proportion of rural population is very high, as compared with the entire population, and shows how much less the facilities are in those sections. In the Federal District, for instance, which includes the city of Rio de Janeiro, and where the population is almost entirely urban, there is an estimated population of eight hundred and fifty-eight thousand, and a school enrolment of sixty-one thousand nine hundred and thirty-three. In the state of Alagoas, on the other hand, with an almost equal population, and where it is altogether rural with the exception of a few coast towns, there is a school enrolment of only fourteen thousand and ninety-two. The state of Pernambuco, with only one town of any size, and that the capital, has a school enrolment of only twenty-two thousand eight hundred and fifty-two, in a reported population of one million three hundred and ten thousand. More comparisons might be made, but with these explanations the reader can figure them out from the table.[2]

The school instruction, except in the Federal District and the professional schools, is in the hands of the various states. In none of them does a compulsory educational law exist, and, if it did, the facilities do not exist to take care of those of school age who would thus be obliged to attend. As will be seen by the comparisons the provisions for instruction and the illiteracy vary much in the different states. Some of the states are richer than others, and can afford to spend more money for public requirements, and others are naturally more progressive. All of the schools in the various states are modelled on the same general plan. I have chosen those of São Paulo for illustration, because that state has made better progress along educational lines than the others, and because I made a special study of the school system of that state.

The schools are divided into three classes: primary, secondary and superior. The primary schools are again divided into preliminary and complementary instruction. The preliminary instruction is given in ungraded schools, and the law requires the establishment of an ungraded school in every community where there are from twenty to forty pupils of school age, although this has not always been done. Where there are six or more of these schools, a “school group” may be established, in which teaching is graded. In this state there are about eighty of these school groups. In addition there are a number of night schools where similar instruction is given to those who are unable to attend the day schools, or who have passed the school age and lacked the opportunity for an education in their youthful days. Of these there are thirty-four in the state at the present time. A few free kindergarten schools are also maintained in the capital, but this feature of instruction has not been developed much as yet.

The secondary instruction is given in what are termed gymnasiums. All of these schools, whether public or private, in order to be recognized over the country, must conform to the regulations laid down by the National Gymnasium at Rio de Janeiro. They must observe the programmes and courses of study laid down by that institution, and the student in one of these gymnasiums is given the degree of bachelor of letters, or science, after a course of study covering six years. In the state of São Paulo, there are three of these schools: one in São Paulo, one in Campinas and one in Riberão Preto. The course of study is about equal to that of the average high school in the United States, and prepares the student to matriculate in the schools for superior instruction. The so-called superior schools are those devoted to technical and professional education. For superior instruction there are in this state two institutions: the Law School and the Polytechnic School, of which the former is a federal institution, and has graduated some of the brightest lawyers and statesmen of the republic. The Polytechnic School is devoted, as its name indicates, to the teaching of the practical sciences, and is fitted with the necessary apparatus for such instruction. The school year in the public schools is generally from the first of February, or March, to the end of the following November, but the professional schools do not begin as a rule until the first of April. A model school, the Braz Grupo, is maintained in São Paulo, which is used as the name would indicate, as an example for the other schools.

One school of which this state is very proud is the Normal School, which has departments for all grades from the kindergarten up. Its primary object is to prepare teachers for the work in the other schools, and in this respect it is doing an admirable work. As its accommodation is limited the students are only admitted upon special recommendation, and it is sometimes difficult for a boy or girl to secure admittance, as it is always full. The normal course extends over a period of four years, and covers a wide range of subjects. It is fitted up with a good library, a chemical laboratory, gymnasium, modelling rooms and apparatus for manual work. It has turned out several hundred graduates, of whom the proportion of women exceeds that of men in about the same proportion as they do in our own land.

The director of public instruction in this state is a progressive man, and is making many improvements in the work. He made a trip to the United States in order to study the system there, and brought back a great many practical ideas. He is arranging the courses of study and method of instruction in the schools of this state after the system in use in the United States. It cannot be done all at once as there are certain prejudices in the minds of some that must first be overcome. This process has been in operation for several years, and one can see the good results. The building was originally planned by an American lady teacher, who was brought down for that purpose. The only two modern languages taught, except the Portuguese, are French and English. This is a compliment to our tongue to have it chosen in preference to the German and Spanish, as is generally the rule. Their method of teaching the English is very practical too. This means that in the course of a few years the English language will be much more common than it is to-day. I found that the people were anxious to learn English, and those who did know it were proud of the accomplishment. Formerly they desired to know only French, in addition to Portuguese, for that was the polite language; but, as commerce has developed, the desire to know English has increased in proportion, until now all those who are able to go to the higher institutions of learning are taking up the study of English.

There are a number of other institutions of learning in this state, most of them under the auspices of the various Roman Catholic orders. Some of these schools are of a very high order and are doing their share in the work of raising the standard of education. One of the best of their institutions is a large convent school for the education of girls. The most important non-Catholic institution is the Mackenzie College, which was founded by Presbyterian missionaries, but is now undenominational. At its head is the venerable Dr. Horace M. Lane, a scholarly and able man, whom I am glad to enrol as a friend. Dr. Lane first came to Brazil in 1857 as a physician, and has lived there continuously since that time, except for a period of fourteen years, during which he practised medicine in the United States. When the college was endowed with $50,000 by John T. Mackenzie, of New York, whose name it now bears, Dr. Lane was chosen president and has remained at the head ever since. The will of the above benefactor left the college a large additional sum of money. Dr. Lane understands the Brazilians as few Americans do. He is a very kindly and generous critic, and frankly tells them their faults without flattery. His candour and frankness have won him friends and the respect of all, and even of the Catholic clergy. Mackenzie College is unique in that it has never asked recognition of the government, but is affiliated with the University of the State of New York. This institution has been in existence a number of years, and its instructors have had the pleasure of seeing many of its graduates reach positions of the greatest importance, both at home and abroad. The resident foreigners send their children there, and the Brazilians do likewise. A graduate of Mackenzie College has a recognized standing all over the republic even though it has not asked for government recognition, and placed itself under the necessity of maintaining an official inspector on its pay roll.

The O Granberry College, at Juiz de Fora, in the state of Minas Geraes, is another progressive North American college, under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, that is making a reputation in Brazil. I had the privilege of attending the commencement exercises at this college, in company with the American Ambassador and his military attaché. The festa exercises, as they term it in Brazil, were attended by a very large audience. Representative citizens of the community, including the mayor of the city and the president of the Camara, which is a sort of county council, were present on the platform. This shows a truly liberal spirit, for perhaps only a very small proportion of the audience were other than Roman Catholics. This school maintains, in addition to the regular academic courses, schools of pharmacy, dentistry and theology. Their schools of pharmacy and dentistry are among the very best in the republic. A government military instructor is also kept to drill the boys and young men in military tactics, much the same as in the colleges of our own land. I was surprised to find a number of young women taking up the study of pharmacy and dentistry, for it seemed a wide departure in this land of conservativeness and tradition, which has heretofore denied to woman that larger field granted to the sex in Anglo-Saxon countries. The generous spirit and encouragement shown to these institutions, conducted by aliens and Protestants, and the wider field granted to women, are good omens, I believe, for the future of the land.

A number of states have established agricultural schools, which promise much for the future. The best one of these schools is the Escola Agricola, at Piracicaba, which is maintained by the state of São Paulo. The site for this college was presented to the state by one of its progressive citizens. The Secretary of Agriculture of that state travelled widely throughout the United States and Europe, studying places and methods, and finally decided to establish the school on the American system. He then engaged Dr. Clinton D. Smith, an American, who had been at the head of a prominent agricultural college in the United States, to take charge of the work. The faculty also include two Frenchmen, one Belgian, one Bulgarian, one Portuguese and a number of Brazilians, making quite a cosmopolitan board of instructors.

The institution is housed in a large, beautiful building, and its equipment is equal to our own best institutions. The student is instructed in the analysis of soils, and the introduction of modern machinery for their cultivation; in botany, and a good course in stock raising; and in physics, even to measuring the force of a waterfall, or winding a dynamo. There is also a course in physiology, hygiene and medicine for emergencies, as well as much-needed instruction in political economy. The most practical feature is the actual work on the farm which every student is obliged to do. He must work for two hours each day in the actual occupation of handling a plow, rigging a harrow, managing a mower or reaper, and learn how to repair any of the common machines on the plantation. Students from a number of states attend the school, and many of them are sons of wealthy Brazilians. As the able director told me: “It is a good and much-needed training for a set of boys born where slavery was in existence, and in a land where to work with the hands is a sign of inferiority. The hope of the college is to exert a fundamental influence on agriculture, where monoculture is the rule and polyculture ought to be.” It will do more than that, for such instruction will have an important bearing in developing the character of these young men as well.

Portuguese writers are prolific. Few countries have produced more literature, compared with the number who speak the language, than Portugal and Brazil. The Portuguese language is especially rich in expression, and is said to be the nearest to the classic Latin of any living dialect. It lends itself easily to poetic expression, and there have been many poets. The Brazilians are fond of elaborate and flowery expressions, and this verboseness and ornate form of expression runs through their literature and public speaking. At the commencement exercises mentioned above the addresses of some of the graduates were most elaborate. Where an American graduate would have started out with “Ladies and Gentlemen,” and perhaps have added “our dear professors and honourable trustees,” the Brazilian youth took several minutes to make his introductory remarks, and pass around his compliments to the professors and other dignitaries who were on the stage. No one was omitted in the general round of compliments. Impromptu poems spring up on every and all occasions, and the recent visit of a high state official of the United States prompted more than one poetic effusion, many of which were fortunately suppressed by the committees in charge of the festivities.

Brazil has produced a number of eminent writers. The best known, and perhaps most widely loved of all, is Gonçalves Diaz, who has been called the Longfellow of Brazil. He died nearly a half century ago, but his memory has been honoured by monuments and streets named in his honour, and his name has been kept green by continuous quotations from his writings. The “Song of the Exile,” written by him, has been called the “Home, Sweet Home” of the Brazilians, and is said to be quoted more than any other poem in the language. Says Mrs. Wright:[3] “No translation has ever been made which in any sense reveals the exquisite delicacy of touch in the original, or its plaintive rhythmic melody, though many attempts have been made to put it into English and other languages. Throughout the six stanzas of which it is composed, the little poem voices a heart cry of homesickness. After recounting, with childlike simplicity, the charm of his native land, its palm trees, and the sweet-voiced Sabiá, the favourite songbird of Brazil, he prays with touching pathos to be spared to return, that he may once more see its glorious palms and hear the Sabiá sing.” Diaz had received a good education in Portugal, and became a professor of history in the college at Rio. Many of his poems have a historic basis and deal with events of history. He served on several government commissions, among which was a trip up the Amazon with a scientific commission. On this trip his health was ruined, and from that time he was an invalid to the time of his death. On his return from a trip to Europe his vessel was shipwrecked, and his remains went to a watery grave, at the early age of forty.

There have been many other and excellent writers, both of fiction and poetry, in the past century, but few of them are known to the English-speaking world, as translations have not been made. Some excellent histories have been written also, which have been fostered and preserved by the Brazilian Historical and Geographical Institute. Dr. Machado de Assis is one of the most distinguished living writers, who has written both poetry and fiction. Dr. Olavo Bilac has also written many beautiful poems, and is one of the best-known writers and orators of the day. I had the pleasure of meeting him, and listening to an address by him, and it was a very pleasing address, distinguished for its purity of style. Dr. Ruy Barbosa, prominent also in political circles, has been a prolific writer in many lines. There is scarcely an important subject that his pen has not touched upon, from fiction to the intricate problem of international law. Baron de Rio Branco, a member for many years of the official cabinet, and Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, late Ambassador to the United States, who died a few months ago in Washington, are also writers of considerable merit.

The press of Brazil is a strong factor in the literature of the country, as well as in the politics. Nearly every politician is a writer, and, conversely, nearly every writer is more or less of a politician. Speeches are published in full, and politics and literature fill a large part of the space in the average Brazilian newspaper. The first newspaper established in Brazil was the Gazeta do Rio, in the year 1808, and other newspapers followed soon after in many other cities. The oldest paper in the capital, as well as the most influential one to-day, is the Jornal do Comercio, originally established as the Spectator, in 1824. Its contributors have included all the leading politicians and writers since that time. It is a large and well-printed newspaper of many pages, and is well edited. O Paiz, Correio da Manhã, Jornal do Brazil, Gazeta de Noticias, Diario do Commercio, Diario de Noticias, A Noticia, O Seculo, Correio da Noite and A Tribuna are the other leading daily newspapers in the city to-day. O Malho and Revista da Semana are weekly reviews, while O Tico-Tico and Fon-Fon are illustrated comics. São Paulo, the second city, has a dozen daily newspapers, more than the average city of the United States of the same size. O Estado de São Paulo and the Correio Paulistina are the leading and most influential ones. The Brazilian Review, a weekly journal, is the only English periodical published in the country, but there are several German and Italian publications. There are also a number of class publications and trade journals, and nearly every town and city has a local daily or weekly publication.

The artistic sense is one of the essential elements of the Latin character. It has perhaps reached its highest development with the Italian race, but the Spaniards and the Portuguese also have this talent well developed. The traveller throughout Latin America can not fail to be impressed by the transplanted art that he finds everywhere in evidence. In Mexico, Central America and Peru he will find the original sense tinged with the Indian influence of the ancient races, who developed an architectural style of their own. Along the Atlantic coast of South America this element is lacking, because the Indians of that coast had not reached an advanced civilization, and lived in the crudest way. Hence the architecture of Brazil corresponds more nearly to the established schools that one will find in Latin Europe.

The Latin Americans strive for beauty, and, for myself, I must say that in general I admire their style. Some of their buildings would not appear well in a cold climate, but in design and decoration they are well adapted to the country. The government buildings, the plazas, the numerous statues, all have lines of beauty that please the eye. In small towns far from the railway one will oftentimes stumble upon a church, a convent or some other building of real artistic beauty and design. These buildings in a sense satisfy the artistic hunger of the race, and they are the objects to which every resident points with pride.