The only real contest in the election was over the choice of a Vice-President. Dr. Vasquez Gomez, who had been the principal aid of Sr. Madero in the revolution, had been cast aside by him in favour of José Maria Pino Suarez. The cause of the disagreement between these two leaders of the revolution was in part over the name of the party. Dr. Gomez insisted upon the original name of the revolutionist party, which was Anti-reelectionista, while Sr. Madero decided upon the name of Constitutional Progressive. Dr. Gomez continued as a candidate under the name chosen by him. Many also voted for the Acting-President, although he was not an active candidate. Other names of parties with tickets in the field were Pure Liberal Party, Red Liberals, Evolutionist Party and Reyesistas. An active campaign was carried on by several of the candidates, and Señor Madero visited many of the states in a speaking tour. Everywhere he was received with respect and at many times with real enthusiasm. Soldiers were present at the voting booths in many places on election day to prevent trouble, but there was very little disturbance in any part of the country.

On the 6th of November, 1911, Francisco Indalecio Madero was inaugurated President of Mexico with elaborate ceremonies, and Pino Suarez was inducted into the office of Vice-President. The new chief executive of the republic was born on the Hacienda del Rosario, in the state of Coahuila, on the 4th of October, 1873, and is still a young man. He is the eldest of a family of thirteen children, and both of his parents are members of wealthy land-owning families. It is estimated that the revolution cost the Maderos more than a million dollars, but they could well afford it. He married Señorita Sara Pérez, the daughter of a prominent Mexican, in 1900. For several years President Madero has been the leader of the opposition in the republic. His appearance is not that of a leader, for the new President is barely five feet four in height and weighs less than one hundred thirty-five pounds. His figure is slight, with small hands and feet, and he wears a full beard. By way of preparing for his campaign Madero wrote a book entitled “The Presidential Succession in 1910,” which created such a tremendous sensation that it was finally suppressed by the Diaz government. It was a fearless arraignment of what he considered to be the evils of that administration. On June 7th, 1910, he was arrested at Monterey and imprisoned for several weeks, not being released until after the election had been held. It was then that he published his political platform known as the “Plan of San Luis Potosi,” which was issued from that city on the 5th of October. Among the reforms advocated by him were a more equitable distribution of the lands of the republic, free restitution of lands wrested from the Yaquis and a return of that tribe to their native state, and an abolition of the practice of admitting malefactors into the national army.

It is impossible to predict the outcome of the Madero administration. If the people stand by him many needed reforms may be accomplished. The main difficulty to be overcome will be that personalism enters so much into Mexican politics. If parties backed by real and genuine principles and not dependent for their strength upon a single personality, shall arise, then peaceful conditions will return and President Madero will be permitted to work out his program. He showed himself humane and considerate during the revolution, although he did not distinguish himself especially as a strategist or military leader. He broke all precedents in yielding the provisional presidency to Dr. de la Barra, instead of seizing that office himself as he might easily have done. In his speeches he has counselled moderation among his followers. He has a difficult task before him, but it is the hope of the writer that he will not disappoint those who have raised him to power.

President Madero has been accused of being anti-American in his sympathies. As an answer to this I quote from an authorized statement by him in an American newspaper:

“I am glad at this time to have the opportunity to assure the American people of my great friendship and regard for them, and to assure them that I will do all in my power during my administration to strengthen still more the already strong friendly relations existing between the two nations. I feel very sure that during my administration the bonds which unite the sister republic will become far stronger than they have ever been. I am a great admirer of the American people, for I went to school in the United States and I have travelled much in your country. I will welcome Americans to Mexico at all times. I want to see American energy, American brains and American capital come to this country and assist in its development and progress, and Americans will always find a friend in me and my government.”

CHAPTER XXII
THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND

“Las Madres,” says the Mexican, whenever he is asked the name of the lofty range of mountains that runs through the western part of the northern half of Mexico, and which separate the lofty interior plateaus from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. This range of mountains effectually cuts off the west coast from the best developed part of Mexico, and for that reason this section is not so well known as those parts which are visited by travellers. At the present time no railway has been completed across this range of mountains, but it will not be long until this disadvantage will exist no longer. This district includes the great states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the territory of Tepic, and a large part of the states of Chihuahua and Durango. To-day it is almost a counterpart of what California was before the gold rush of 1849—little known, isolated and undeveloped—but with just as great natural advantages. Dense jungles cover the lower levels along the coast, where water is plentiful, while great areas in the north are semi-arid. In the higher altitudes vast forests of pine and oak crown the serrated peaks. The population is generally sparse and scattered.

In the future the main gateways to reach this part of the country from the United States will be El Paso, and Benson, Arizona. From El Paso it is a distance of a little more than two hundred miles to Chihuahua. The traveller has no sooner crossed the Rio Grande than the change is seen in the Mexican town of Ciudad Juarez, formerly Paso del Norte. This city was the objective point of the revolutionists in the late trouble in that country, and was the scene of a great deal of fighting before it was finally captured. After its capture it was the seat of the temporary government of the Maderistas. For several hours on the journey southward there is nothing to be seen but the chaparral and desolate-looking hills, with just enough novelty in the little towns that may be passed to make the trip strange and rather old-fashioned. Big-hatted, shiftless peons stare at you from their leaning positions against the station walls. The “hee-haw” of a lone burro or the “cough” of a gasoline engine will be the only sounds to break the silence.

The train rolls along through a narrow valley which is quite level, and with high tablelands all about. Then the route reaches the land of haciendas, where herds of cattle, sheep and goats may be seen. It is a land of deep valleys, with glimpses of majestic mountains, and sometimes with broad spreading plains as well, but the mountains are always in view. At length, after a ride of a little more than half a day, the train reaches Chihuahua, which is the principal city and metropolis of this section of Mexico. Chihuahua is not a very beautiful city; nor is it as attractive as many of the other Mexican cities, for its location and the climate are not such as can greatly be recommended. It is destined to be a much larger city than at present, however, by reason of the mineral wealth surrounding it, and also because it is the starting point for what will ultimately be the principal trade route between the United States and northwestern Mexico. Like Monterey this city has become very much Americanized, and that influence is noticeable in both people and architecture.

Chihuahua is on the line of the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, which, when completed, will form a direct route from Kansas City, Missouri, to Topolobampo, a new port on the Pacific. At the present time trains are running from Wichita, Kansas, almost to the Mexican border, and two detached sections are in operation in the Republic of Mexico. One of these starts from a point near the Rio Grande and runs to Chihuahua. From Chihuahua westward this railroad, in conjunction with the Mexican Northwestern Railway, traverses one of the finest grazing sections of the republic. Broad prairies which are covered with grass stretch out on either side to the foothills, and form rich grazing lands. The vast ranges, the temperate climate and a fair average rainfall makes this almost an ideal country for cattle. Upon them are fattened the beef that feeds the country, and many animals find their way to the markets of the United States. It is a region of immense haciendas, which form almost empires in themselves, for they are larger than some of the principalities of Europe. One estate near Chihuahua would make a commonwealth as large as the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island combined, with a small farm of a million acres besides. The Zuloaga family own a hacienda directly on this line of railway, which is thirty-five miles wide and nearly one hundred miles long, and includes about two million acres. Most of this estate consists of fine grazing land, and it ships about forty thousand head of cattle each year, as well as from three to six thousand mules and horses. A few years ago the late proprietor of this estate bought an adjoining farm for two hundred thousand dollars, and his method of paying for it is a good illustration of Mexican business methods. He secured silver coin for this amount, which weighed nearly six tons, and hauled it over to the seller in two great carts.

The buildings of the Zuloaga hacienda, which I visited, lie about fifty miles west of Chihuahua, in one of the most beautiful locations that could be found anywhere. They are near the foot of a range of low mountains, and in front projects out a plain that gently slopes down to a lake a couple of miles distant. Beyond the lake is another range of wooded hills which seem to complete the picture. Within the walls are the home of the hacendado, the church, the stables and a store. The church is a beautiful structure, artistic in its details, and all of the materials used in its construction were secured upon the plantation; and all of the work, including some magnificently carved woodwork and some creditable paintings, was done on the premises and by those living there. The buildings are all one-storied in height, with walls thick enough to withstand any earthquake. The rooms are large and airy, with extremely high ceilings, through which you might drive a carriage, and the parlours are nearly as large as public halls. More than three thousand peons are employed on this hacienda, most of whom live in buildings arranged in big hollow squares just outside of the walls of the family’s quarters.

There are a number of small towns along this trans-continental line of railway, the principal of which is Miñaca, a quaint little old-fashioned place. The inhabitants would rather attend a chicken fight than work or go to mass. From Miñaca this road begins the real climb over the divide on its way to the Pacific coast. For scenic beauty it equals any railroad in Mexico, not excepting the ride over the Mexican railway from the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, hitherto described. Deep cuts, high hills, and tunnels succeed each other, as the railroad climbs up on its way toward the line of perpetual snow. It passes through one of the best timber sections of Mexico, where tall pine trees, straight as an arrow, rise up for a hundred feet or more without a limb. Huge crags of fantastic outline, tall pines silhouetted against the low-hanging clouds and the mysterious depths of the barrancas combine to form scenes of awe-inspiring grandeur. At dangerous points crosses on the trail tell the story of tragedies—of riders who have probably stumbled into eternity without a moment’s warning.

This Sierra region of Mexico should appeal to the sportsman, for much game abounds. At nearly all elevations may be found the white-tail deer. The mountain lion, called tigre, lurks in the fastnesses of the mountains. The bear may be found wherever there are good feeding grounds. The wild turkey is plentiful in many sections. The Mexicans do not hunt much, so that there are many game birds. Quail are numerous in the foothills, and wild duck, snipe and curlew are exceedingly numerous on the lagunas and marshes of the coast, as well as in the lakes of the mountain region. Hunting is inexpensive, and it is strange that more Americans do not visit this unhunted region.

One of the strangest of the many tribes of Mexican Indians inhabit the valleys and barrancas of this part of the republic. These are the Tarahumaris, a timid race who rather shrink from contact with the white people to any greater extent than is necessary. Occasionally these Indians may be seen on the streets of Chihuahua, whither they go to buy some things, or, perhaps, to carry a message for a Mexican or American. But they do not linger any longer than is necessary. They can always be distinguished from the other Indians because the men almost invariably have their legs absolutely bare in all kinds of weather. They also wear their hair long, and it hangs down over the shoulder like our red men, while the Mexican Indians usually wear their hair short. Their features are coarse, but their bearing has a kind of native dignity about it that attracts. One of their medicine men once cut his hair to get some new ideas. While the new hair was growing he kept his head tied up to prevent his thoughts from escaping. I mention this to give an idea of the primitiveness and simplicity of these strange people.

The Tarahumaris pay no taxes or tribute to the Mexican government. They are quiet and inoffensive, however, and for that reason they are allowed to inhabit the mountain slopes and inhospitable barrancas in peace. Their houses are very simple. They are usually made by setting up forked poles across which other straight poles are laid, and then roughly-hewed boards are set up along the sides. Sometimes they are made entirely of small rocks. Many of them live in the natural caves which abound in that region, and of which I have seen scores. They are nomadic and change their domicile frequently, although the new location may be only a few hundred rods away from the old. Store-houses may be seen in which the family stores its surplus supply of corn and beans, which are the only food supplies cultivated by these people. Upon the mountains the men kill deer and squirrels, and these, together with fish, rats and little ground animals which abound in that region, constitute their principal meat supply.

The Tarahumaris are not a sociable people, nor are they industrious, for they like too well to lie on their backs or breasts in the hot sun. They are great runners and have been known to run day after day, stopping only to eat and secure some necessary sleep. When they are travelling across the country one will seldom see them walking. Even on a mountain trail they usually keep up a trot. I have seen them running up a steep path where most of us would not want to walk very long without stopping to rest. The chief men of the tribes carry canes as their emblem of authority. If a man is charged with an offence a messenger is sent to him, armed with a cane made of red Brazil wood, and the person summoned would not dare to disobey the order. No writ issued by any court in a civilized land commands greater obedience. It is generally the older men who are entrusted with this badge of authority, and they are very jealous of the privilege. This method of designating authority is quite common among the aborigines of the Americas. The Tarahumaris are very superstitious. They are afraid to travel after night because the dead are supposed to be abroad at that time. The shaman, as the medicine man is called, is a man of great importance among these superstitious people. He is always present at all family celebrations, such as weddings and funerals, and he is generally called in when there is sickness in the family.

About one hundred and fifty miles southwest of El Paso, in the state of Chihuahua, is a colony of considerable interest to Americans. After travelling that number of miles of semi-desert land over the Rio Grande and Sierra Madre Railway from Ciudad Juarez, as dreary a landscape as one could imagine, the appearance suddenly changes as one approaches the lands of the Mormon colony that has settled here. Fearful of the results of the anti-polygamy agitation in the United States a few hundred followers of Brigham Young banded together, and sought a new “promised land.” They travelled in caravans that contained all their worldly goods until they crossed the border into Mexico. Here they were welcomed, for farmers are what northern Mexico needed, and religious or ethical questions did not disturb the Mexican government. The colonists were exempted from taxes for ten years, and their implements were allowed free entry. Each colonist was granted a certain number of acres at low interest and on easy terms.

The original colony has expanded into several settlements numbering more than five thousand persons. The principal colony is named Colonia Juarez, and it is a few miles from the station of Casas Grandes. The Mormons are splendid agriculturalists, and they sell large quantities of alfalfa, grains, potatoes and dairy products. They use the very latest of American agricultural machinery on their farms. Every village has a graded school supported by a voluntary tax, and a large central academy is also maintained for higher education. They are devout followers of the Mormon prophets,—these colonists across the Rio Grande,—although they claim that no open polygamy is practised. Each man will deny the possession of more than one wife. The excess of women with families over the men, however, and the fact that the Mormon man is thoroughly at home in more than one house would easily lead one to a different conclusion. To this must be added the knowledge that these Mormons left good homes in Utah for a tract of almost desert land in Mexico, mainly because of the efforts of the government of the United States to stamp out plural marriages.

The other main route to the Sierra regions is an extension of the Southern Pacific Railroad, which is known as the Sonora Railway. This railroad extends from Nogales, and it is destined to run to the city of Guadalajara, a distance of about eleven hundred miles. Nogales is a city of about three thousand inhabitants, half of which lies on either side of the border line. A simple glance without any explanation would show the visitor which part of it belongs to the United States, because of the difference in the buildings and the energy of the inhabitants. From there the railroad runs south through Magdalena and across some fertile plains until, at a distance of almost three hundred miles from the border, it reaches Hermosillo, the capital of the state of Sonora, which is the second largest state in the republic. Much of this state is useless for agriculture, as it is dry and arid, and a part is very mountainous. In other sections the soil is extremely fertile, and irrigation would render it invaluable. Such projects could be carried out if there was as much enterprise on that side of the border as on the northern side. Near the Yaqui River the soil and climate are as well adapted to fruit culture as southern California. There are many large mining enterprises, the largest being at Cananea, and nearly all are American enterprises. The trouble with the Yaqui Indians has greatly hindered development in Sonora during the past decade. Several parties of American prospectors and miners were attacked and a number of Americans killed. The government finally deported thousands of the Yaquis to other sections of the republic, and their depredations then ceased.

Hermosillo is situated on the Sonora River, in the midst of an agricultural district and surrounded by rugged mountains, where there are many mines of gold and silver. It is the seat of a Catholic diocese, for which a fine new cathedral has been built, and also has some very creditable buildings. It is a city of perhaps ten or twelve thousand people, and is the largest city in the state. From Hermosillo this railroad runs to the port of Guaymas, which is quite an important commercial town, and less than a hundred miles from the capital. The Bay of Guaymas is one of the best on the Pacific coast, and the marine trade is quite important. For a long time this town was the terminus of this railroad, but it is too far up the Gulf of California to ever become a very important ocean port. Within the last few years construction work has been rapidly pushed southward at a little distance from the coast, and through trains are now running as far as the city of Tepic, on the way to Guadalajara.

Not a great distance south of Guaymas the Sonora Railroad enters Sinaloa, a state nearly as large as Indiana. This state is destined to be a great agricultural state, as it is well watered and contains a number of fine rivers. Besides the Fuerte, Sinaloa, Culiacan and Elota Rivers, there are a hundred or more smaller streams traversing it. It stretches along the Pacific coast for a distance of nearly four hundred miles, and has an average breadth of eighty miles. One-half of the state is little known, and is traversed only by obscure and difficult trails. Cane and corn culture have been the chief industry, but it offers good inducements for the raising of almost all kinds of grains. In undeveloped natural wealth, both agricultural and mineral, and in its splendid water powers, Sinaloa is unsurpassed by any Mexican commonwealth. An American land company has recently opened up a tract of two million acres, and is establishing a colony that promises good results. The capital is Culiacan, a short distance from the coast. Heretofore the only outlet for this city of fifteen thousand has been a miserable railroad to its port, Altata, but the new line enables passengers to go by Pullman cars to all points in the United States. It is an old city, for the Spaniards found a considerable settlement there. They immediately established a town which was well fortified. The present city is quite attractive and possesses a little manufacturing. It is the residence seat of quite a colony of rich and cultured Mexicans, and a number of Americans interested in mining also reside there.

Mazatlan, a little further down the coast, is the largest city and principal port of Sinaloa. It is a picturesque place, with its cathedral spires outlined against the sky, and cocoanut palms and thatched roofs below. The blue Cordilleras in the distance complete the picture. A lighthouse at the north entrance is said to be the highest lighthouse in the world, with the exception of the one at Gibraltar. It is a city of about twenty thousand inhabitants, and the largest city on the Pacific coast. Although a great deal of shipping is done in Mazatlan, the harbour is poor and offers no protection to vessels. Plans have been approved for a safe harbour, to cost several million pesos, in order to prepare it for the anticipated increase in business. Whether the internal troubles will stop the building of this much-needed west coast railroad improvement remains to be seen. Its completion will not only give an outlet for this rich region to the United States, but also to the City of Mexico, and the stimulus can already be seen wherever the railroad is in operation. There is not a richer section in the whole republic than these coast lands, but because of their isolation everything has been backward, and all work has been done in the very crudest and most primitive ways. The only development that has taken place is in mining, and most of the mines are even yet operated in the old-fashioned ways, because of the difficulty of transporting machinery and fuel.

The territory of Tepic is almost as large as the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut combined. In natural resources it will compare with Sinaloa, for it is well watered and affords fine opportunities for agriculture. Some day the jungles will be transformed into orange groves and banana plantations, while the higher lands will produce rich harvests of grain and coffee. The water power could be utilized to turn the wheels of factories or to run the railroads which are so much needed.

The capital city of Tepic, a municipality of fifteen thousand people, has been asleep, but will now be awakened daily by the noise of the locomotive. At an elevation of three thousand feet the air is fresh and invigorating. The climate is pronounced almost ideal by those who live there, and it is free from the fevers that prevail in the low coast lands. It does not differ in general appearance from many other Mexican cities, but is a quaint and interesting town.

Separated from the mainland of Mexico by the Gulf of California and the Colorado River, lies that little known territory of Baja (lower) California. It is a long narrow peninsula that projects about eight hundred miles southeasterly from the southern border of California. Its width varies from about thirty to over one hundred miles, with an irregular coast line over two thousand miles long bordered by numerous islands, and in size is a trifle larger than the state of Iowa. Lower California is mainly mountainous, with irregular plains along the Pacific coast, and smaller plains and valleys along the north coast and in some parts of the interior. In climatic and other physical features the northern part of the peninsula is very similar to southern California, with some local modifications. The southern end of the Colorado Desert crosses the border, and continues down along the northern coast for some distance. Along the Pacific coast a low range of mountains recedes a short distance inland, and continues for some distance. In the southern part of the peninsula they become higher, forming the San Pedro Martir Mountains, which reach a height of over ten thousand feet above the sea. Vast desolate plateaus of black lava, which surround little gem-like valleys, are succeeded by extensive stretches of desert upon which nothing but the cactus will grow. The western coast is bathed by cool waters and fogs, while the eastern shores are washed by the waves of a warm inland sea, and have almost continuous sunshine.

Lower California was one of the early discoveries of the Spaniards, and was promptly placed in charge of the Jesuits, whose missionaries were quite successful. They explored all parts of the peninsula and established missions among the Indians, and at the same time introduced many of the crops and fruits of the Old World. They established three main trails throughout the length of the peninsula, one following each coast and the other running near the centre. These roads are to-day the only routes of travel, and, except for short distances, can only be pursued on mule-back. Most of the Indians who formerly inhabited the peninsula have disappeared, and the population to-day is very small. Some of the old mission churches are still in use, while others are represented simply by fragments of ruined walls and choked-up irrigating ditches.

Agriculture has never flourished to any great extent in Lower California. Numerous colonies have been practically failures, with the exception of some recent ones near the international border, where water for irrigation has been obtained from the Colorado River. All of the peninsula has been traversed many times by prospectors in search of gold, silver and other minerals, and a number of valuable mines have been located in various places. The general climate is hot and arid, as is evidenced by the vegetation, although in the southern regions there are districts which have regular summer rains. As a consequence of the arid conditions the surface water is scarce, and is limited to isolated waterfalls or to springs from which small streams sometime flow for a short distance, and then sink into the earth.

The country is divided for administration into the northern and southern portions, with Ensenada, a small port on the west coast as the capital of the northern part, and La Paz, on the eastern coast, the capital of the southern portion. La Paz is the only city of any particular size, and is a place of about six thousand people. The streets are well laid out, and there are some excellent stores and many comfortable houses. The gardens are filled with palms and various tropical trees, so that the city has quite a decided tropical appearance, although it is surrounded by an arid district. It is the seat of the pearl fisheries, which are quite flourishing in the Gulf, and the output of pearls is quite an important item. Tia Juana (Aunt Jane) is a small town on the border not far from San Diego, and it is, perhaps, better known than any other town on the peninsula. Several skirmishes took place within its borders during the recent revolution led by Madero, and many of the participants were Americans.

Magdalena Bay, concerning which there has been considerable talk of the United States trying to secure as a coaling station, is the finest land-locked harbour on the Pacific coast, with a narrow entrance which is protected by the high headlands. The bay is about fifteen miles across, with low sandy shores, and would furnish a fine protection for scores of the largest vessels. It is also within sight of the regular sailing route of steamers bound for Panama. For that reason it would be a very advantageous possession of the United States, if it could be obtained by negotiations with the Mexican government.

The plant life of Lower California is different from that of any other part of the world—so naturalists say. There is a veritable riot of strange forms of cacti and other plants which manage to live without rainfall. The cacti vary from giant forms, which raise their massive fluted trunks to a height of fifty to sixty feet, to little straggling species which are too weak to stand upright. Another peculiar form is the creeping devil cactus, as it is called, which has the appearance of gigantic caterpillars crawling in every direction. These plants do actually travel away from a common centre, as the stem sends down rootlets every little distance, and then the older stems in the rear die about as fast as it advances in the front. There are not many species of birds or animals, and only such kinds as can live where water is scarce will be found. It is said that some animals have been found that never drink water, and even in captivity can not be taught to drink, as it does not seem necessary to their existence.

Owing to its desert character the peninsula is very thinly peopled, and there are extensive sections where not a single inhabitant will be found. The most populous section is that south of La Paz, where the rains are more regular. A few small towns or villages will be found scattered around the coast, with a limited number of prospectors and miners gathered in the interior. The effort to colonize Lower California has been a tale of unbroken failure for more than fifty years. A few rainy years will cause apparent prosperity, but the succeeding years may be rainless and disaster follows. Those who have studied Lower California say that it is not all a hopeless desert, but that there are possibilities of agriculture through irrigation in many parts.

CHAPTER XXIII
THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN

The Mayas (pronounced My-yah) were an ancient people of whom little is known. They dwelt on the broad plains of Yucatan and Central America, and built many cities, or governmental centres, for no ruins of private dwellings have yet been found. The groups of buildings resemble in no way our cities of the present day. They consist everywhere of temples and palaces of the reigning princes or caciques, of public buildings scattered about apparently at random, covering a vast area, with cemented roads and gardens intervening. The centres of the towns were occupied by the public squares and temples; around these were the palaces of the priests and lords, and the outskirts were evidently allotted to the lower classes. Religion and government seem to have gone hand in hand among these primitive Mexicans. The Maya civilization had reached a height unexcelled by any people of the western hemisphere prior to the coming of the white man. They were skilled in architecture, in sculpture and in writing. The priests had developed the science of astronomy to a considerable extent. They had studied with some success the solar system. They had developed a calendar system and created a chronology. So far as these chronological accounts have been worked out they run back three thousand years or more. They reckoned time much as we do, from a fixed date, namely, the birth of Christ. The later dates of the Quirigua inscriptions are generally believed to be somewhere about the beginning of the Christian era.

The oldest of the ruins of the Maya race is said to be that of Copan, which is situated in Honduras, just across the border from Guatemala. It also seems to have been the southernmost point of their migration, as Tula was the northerly terminus of their wanderings. Then comes Quirigua, in Guatemala, which is one of the most remarkable and inexplicable of all the ruins. Tradition sheds no light whatever on these ruins of Copan or Quirigua. The mysterious silence that surrounds these forms a void in the history of the human race. There are doubtless other ruins awaiting the traveller and explorer in the wilderness around Lake Peten, in the northern part of Guatemala. The founder of the race was Izamat-Ul. “To him were brought,” says an old writer, “the sick, the halt and the dead, and he healed and restored them all to life by the touch of his hand.” Hence he was generally known as the Miraculous Hand, and in inscriptions is frequently represented by a hand only.

In the extreme southeastern part of Mexico, on a small peninsula known as Yucatan, is a section which was at one time the abode of this progressive and migrating race known generally among anthropologists as the Mayas. This distant province deserves far more mention than it usually receives from passing travellers. Though possessing few natural attractions Yucatan is a never-ending source of interest for the anthropologist and archeologist. The whole peninsula is a vast limestone formation, with little or no surface water. Rain is infrequent in most parts, and one might travel for miles without crossing a river or brook, or even chancing upon a spring. In most sections of this peninsula the water is at least seventy feet below the surface of the ground. At the present time windmills aid the inhabitants of that section where the henequen, from which binder twine is made, is raised, but centuries ago such facilities were unknown. There were, however, in some places natural wells which reached down to the depth of what seem to be underground rivers, and it was near these that several ancient cities were located. At least a score of these ancient cities have been explored, of which the best known and most important are Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen Itza. It is known that since the Spaniards first set foot on this peninsula many monuments and practically entire cities have disappeared. At one time, a contemporary writer asserts, there were destroyed in Yucatan five thousand idols of various forms and dimensions, thirteen huge stones which were used as altars, twenty-two smaller stones of various shapes, one hundred and ninety-seven manuscripts of all kinds, including twenty-seven written on deer skins.

Chichen Itza, which is generally interpreted to mean “the mouth of the wells of the Itzas,” seems to have been the leading city, and it was located near two of the largest natural wells, which are immense natural pits with perpendicular sides. It is probable that these phenomena attracted the Mayas in their northern migration. As the tribes quarrelled different factions separated from the original body and established new cities as capitals. Thus Chichen Itza came into being. On this desolate soil,

Before Cortez landed on Mexican soil the star of these ancient peoples had already set. Their oldest cities had their birth so far back in the twilight of time that not even tradition was able to tell the history of the tribes, the causes that led to their decay or the time of their disaster. Some traditions were told to the Spaniards, but they are of such uncertain origin that very little credence can be placed in them. Upon the walls are sculptures which speak to us in an unknown language; hieroglyphics, and the chiselled types of a people long since departed. The hieroglyphics would probably explain all, but no interpreting key has yet been discovered to give an explanation to the writings. Some authorities assert, however, that Chichen Itza was inhabited at the time of the Conquest. A Spaniard by the name of Aquilar was wrecked on this coast and lived with a powerful cacique for several years, but he left behind him no written memoirs. At any rate, it is known that the Spanish forces occupied this place for at least two years. At first the submission of the natives was complete, but after a time they rallied from their stupor, tiring of ministering to the insatiable wants of their conquerors, and much severe fighting followed.

Of the two great wells at Chichen Itza one was used for the general water supply, the cenote grande, and the other was reserved for religious use exclusively, the cenote sacra. Picturesque indeed must have been the throngs of white-robed women who peopled the steps of the cenote grande at all hours of the day to fetch water for household purposes. They probably carried double-handled urns on their hips or shoulders just as their descendants do at this present day. From far and near all over Yucatan pilgrimages were made to the sacred well, which was on the outskirts of the city, just as pilgrimages are made to-day to holy shrines by Catholics and Mohammedans. It was this that gave the city its holy character. Offerings of many kinds were made to the deities. It is said that in time of drouth offerings of precious stones and other valuables were thrown into it, and in specially protracted cases human beings were thrown into it as sacrifices. Even after the time of the Spanish conquest there are recorded instances of pilgrimages to the sacred well for the purpose of sacrificing slaves to relieve a drouth. These victims were supposed to live even after they had disappeared beneath the sacred waters. A Spanish writer of the time asserts that this was done as late as 1560.

The Chichen Itza of the olden times, filled with pilgrims from far and near, would scarcely be recognized in the place of to-day. The jungle has gradually crept its way into the very holy of holies. Columns have been overthrown, and some of the structures have been almost lost in a tangle of thorns and creepers. Even in the last half century the destruction and disintegration has been very noticeable. To reach the place it is necessary to ride about fifteen miles over a rough and wearisome road. All around lie buried in thick jungle ruins of palaces and other buildings. Pyramid-like structures seem to have been one of the favourite forms of building. The most imposing of these on this site rises sixty-eight feet above the plain, and each side is almost one hundred and seventy-five feet in length, the whole covering about an acre of ground. This structure is called the Castillo, although it was really a temple. It is made up of nine terraces of faced masonry, narrowing toward the top, each one elaborately panelled to relieve the monotony. On each side there is a broad stairway, with a flight of ninety steps, with stone balustrades, which are generally carved to represent reptiles. A stone building almost forty feet square crowns the summit. The northern façade must have been very striking before time and the destroying hand of man wrought their work. There were no doors on any of the buildings, and no traces of hinges have been found. At the western base of the pyramid is the walk that leads to the sacred well. It is believed that on the top of this pyramid the sacred rites of the priests of their faith were performed, and it is said that the sacrificial victims were led down these stairways, then along the causeway and finally cast into the sacred well. It is easy for the imagination to picture the scene in all its splendour of white-robed priests, smoking censors, and—saddest of all—the victims bedecked with garlands of flowers.

There are ruins of colonnades, courts, buildings and other structures of which many columns are standing at Chichen Itza, and it has been called “the city of a thousand columns” by some writers. One of the most important monuments is the Nun’s Palace, as it is called. It is not so large as others, but contains a greater number of apartments. It is said to have been the custom of these people to educate girls of noble birth to the service of the gods, on their attaining the age of twelve or thirteen. Their service was similar to that of the Vestal Virgins, although the vows were not always perpetual. It was their duty to keep the altar supplied with fresh flowers and to sweep the temples. One group of structures is called the Ball Court, as it is believed to have been used for a game similar to the modern basket ball. It consists of two perpendicular parallel walls from north to south thirty-two feet high, three hundred and twenty-five feet long and one hundred and thirteen feet apart. The ends of this quadrangle are each occupied by a small temple. In the centre of each wall, about fifteen feet from the ground, there are two stone discs with holes through the centre, which seem to have had a part in this or some other game. The vast proportions of this court, or tlachtle, would seem to indicate that this game was very popular with the Yucatecos. Some of the well preserved ruins present beautiful sculptured façades, to which names have been given because of the fancied resemblance to something. For instance, one has been called the ruins of the “House of the Tigers,” because of a frieze of stalking tigers divided by richly fringed shells; another round building, known as El Caracol, “The Snail,” is the best preserved building at Chichen; “The Red House,” and the “House of the Dark Writing,” are still other structures. In all directions for several miles the bush is strewn with ruins. Crumbling walls and courts overgrown with jungle growth are encountered on every side, but because of the disintegration these once splendid palaces and temples are now little more than shapeless masses of crumbled masonry. The human figures seen on these monuments have the usual types of the Toltec carvings on the plateaus of Mexico. The total area covered by these ruins has been estimated by some investigators as high as ten square miles.

The next largest and most interesting city of ruins is known as Uxmal, which was the capital of the Tutal Xiu branch of the Mayas. This city is located between low ranges of hills, perhaps one hundred miles from Chichen Itza. When seen from an eminence a dozen or more imposing structures of white limestone are presented to view. This city, no doubt, supplied a very important part in the early history of Yucatan—at least if one is to judge from its size. It is believed that this was the original city of the Toltecs. A dozen or more imposing structures of considerable size still stand here that can be identified, in addition to the large numbers of ruins which can scarcely be outlined. The most notable sanctuary of Uxmal, which is now known as the “House of the Dwarf,” is over fifty feet high, and also surmounts a steep-sloped pyramid one hundred feet in height. Two stairways on opposite sides lead to this building. It is so named because the natives say it was built by a savage dwarf in a single night. Long after the city was abandoned this temple was held in especial veneration. The Spanish priests used to find offerings of cocoa and copal on it, and they attributed this to devil worship. Two lines of parallel walls, parts of which are still standing, enclose a court or quadrangle, which is similar to the Ball Court at Chichen. The group of buildings around it encloses more than one hundred rooms. All of the buildings seem to have been built on low platforms or terraces. There is also at this place a high terrace, or platform, that covers over three acres of ground, and on which is a second and a third terrace, upon the latter of which is the ruin of a building known as the Governor’s Palace. This building is one of the finest samples of early American architecture still extant. It stands at an elevation of forty-four feet above the plains, and commands a splendid view of the city. Its exterior walls are decorated with sculptured masonry, in the making of which it is estimated there are upward of twenty thousand sculptured pieces of stone. The building is three hundred and twenty-two feet long, and is divided into three parts by two arcades which pass clear through. It is built entirely of stone without ornament to a height of ten feet, then comes a cornice, above which is a wall that is a bewildering maze of beautiful sculpture. This frieze has a row of colossal heads, and is divided into panels which are alternately filled with grecques in high relief, and diamond or lattice work. All the lintels of the building here are of wood in an excellent state of preservation.