For instruction in agriculture schools are maintained by the government at Concepción, Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca. These schools are all under the supervision of the National Society of Agriculture, and the government contributes liberally toward their maintenance. There is also a school conducted at Chillan for practical agricultural instruction. A number of model farms are maintained by the government, of which the principal one is the Quinta Normal in the capital, and a number of experimental institutions for the cultivation of vines, trees, etc., are also supported by the national government. The agricultural schools, as well as those for the furtherance of industries and mining, hold expositions from time to time, in which, the products of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well as the latest processes and appliances. To these exhibitions the government contributes liberally, in order to acquaint the public with the latest scientific development. The societies themselves are formed by a large number of prominent Chileans, who devote considerable time and energy to the development and improvement of these industries.

Commercial schools have been established at Iquique, Antofagasta, Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and San Carlos. A number of industrial schools are conducted under the direction of the society for the improvement of industries, where technical instruction is given to those preparing them for such occupations as engineers, electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. At Copiapó, Santiago and La Serena, the government has established schools for the practical instruction of mining engineers and mining in general.

Military and naval education is given in ten different academies, located in different parts of the republic. One of the best of these is the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated on a commanding location overlooking the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile commands great consideration this branch of the educational system receives considerable attention, and the cadets are put through a very thorough course of instruction by able instructors. The University of Santiago, as well as a university under the supervision of the Catholic Church, gives instruction in law, political science, music, dentistry, civil engineering, physics and mathematics. Then, in addition, there is a National Conservatory of Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National Observatory, an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, and a School for the Blind.

A number of public libraries have been established in various cities, at the head of which is the National Library at Santiago, which contains a valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Next to this in importance is the public library at Valparaiso. Several other cities have followed the lead of these two and established free public libraries. Museums of natural history and also of arts are maintained in Santiago.

The newspaper in Chile is as much of an institution as it is in the United States. In the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find the newspapers equipped with an energetic staff of reporters, who have, what Americans would call, a good nose for news. Each one, like his American counterpart, is trying to beat his competitor, and acquire at least temporary notoriety and fame.

El Mercurio is the most noted newspaper of the country, and publishes editions in Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with La Prensa, in Buenos Aires, and the Jornal do Comercio, in Rio de Janeiro. In the two former cities El Mercurio owns fine buildings, which are superior in their equipments to the average newspaper office in the United States. It has not only provided good quarters for its editors, reporters, printers and other employees, but has dining-rooms, private parlours, baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other features which American newspaper plants are not equipped with. In these rooms entertainments are given for the public, noted visitors to that country are entertained, and many other features of more or less public interest are provided for the people. The owner of El Mercurio is Mr. Augustin Edwards, who is a member of a famous banking family of Santiago, and has occupied various official positions in the country. El Mercurio was founded in Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It has long been one of the show things in Chile. The editorials in the editions are the same, but the news columns differ considerably because of local interest.

One will find the editors of these papers as well informed as the editors of the leading newspapers in the United States, and their information covers the whole world, perhaps better than the average American editor. If there is any distinguished foreigner visiting the country the reporters eagerly interview him, and the matter is displayed in headlines which are quite similar to the land of yellow journalism. In fact, in general make-up the Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble those of the United States than the journals of any other country of South America. In foreign news one will find two or three pages of cable dispatches in El Mercurio, much more than is printed in papers published by newspapers in cities of similar size in the United States. The vida social (society column) has much news concerning las distinguidas señoras y señoritas. Interspersed with accounts of balls, parties, weddings, visitors, etc., will be obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes of the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen in the advertising space, where columns of advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, the movement of the stock market and other items of commercial interest occupy a prominent place. Sport is prominent, of which football is an integral part, having been made popular by the British residents. The entries in the horse races, together with the various riders and their weights, form a part of the racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. In fact these cosmopolitan publications provide much interesting reading for all who can read them.

Zig-Zag of Santiago, and Sucesos, of Valparaiso, are two illustrated weeklies, which are really admirable and enterprising publications. Each edition is practically a pictorial record of the week both at home and abroad. There will be photographs of those prominent in the social and political life, pictured scenes of the leading events of the week, cartoons and news of the world depicted from the illustrated publications of other countries. There is one English newspaper published in Valparaiso. One feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost topic of the day. It is given the leading position, every one reads it, and it is generally the topic of conversation for the following day. These editorials are generally well worth the reading, for they not only display knowledge but a catholicity of treatment that speaks well for the Chilean.

La Union also publishes editions in Santiago and Valparaiso, and it is a well edited and well conducted paper. Other newspapers of more or less importance are El Dia, La Lei, La Patria, El Chileno, La Reforma, El Diario Popular and Las Ultimas Noticias, and others. In all there are more than two hundred publications of all kinds. Every one who can read at all generally reads about all the newspapers, so that even though the reading class is not as large as with us, yet the circulation of these newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless one wonders how they are all supported and manage to survive.

Like all Spanish people the writers, though not numerous, are usually voluminous. The number is not great because of the lack of readers and library privileges. One Spanish writer says that the circle of readers in each Spanish-American nation is in smaller numbers than in a single street in London, a square in Paris, or a district in Italy. Such a statement is not true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción have large numbers of educated Chileans. But it is true that the writer has a small circle as compared with the clientele of an American, English or German author. Chilean writers have been the most prolific of any of the countries on the Pacific coast of South America. The comparatively stable rule for four decades was conducive to literary development. The French influence in literature is more noted than any other, and especially so in literature of the lighter vein.

Before independence the chief subjects were history, religion and poetry, and many of the writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment of the republic fiction, philosophy and political economy have been prominent, and lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics. Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are two well known writers of modern philosophy and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar lines were Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara. Andres Bello is a name that towers above all. Says Professor Currier: “I regard him as one of the most extraordinary men that the Western Hemisphere has produced. Entirely a self-made man, he explored almost every field of human knowledge, and his numerous works testify to his labours. Poet, philosopher, linguist, philologist, litterateur, historian, educator and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code of Chile places him among the world’s legislators. It is, perhaps, to be regretted that in his earlier years his attention was so much divided among various subjects that many of his labours remain unfinished. Few countries can boast of a man so versatile and of such intellectual activity as Bello.”

Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American republics, is an important profession. One of the greatest journalists Chile has produced was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised immense influence on public thought for many years. His editorials were the ordinary topics at the breakfast table, and were looked for by all parties from day to day. Rodriguez was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary man.

Chile has produced a number of historical writers. Among these might be mentioned the brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui, Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular and natural with the Spanish race. The drama is also an important branch of Spanish literature and Chile has produced her fair share of dramatists. The best known is probably Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded in touching a sympathetic and patriotic chord. A number of novels have also been written by Chilean writers, but they are unknown among English readers.

The artistic is a strong element in the Latin character. Foremost with the Italians, perhaps, it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard. Any one who has visited any of the Latin-American countries has not failed to observe this trait, for art has been well preserved in the New World, wherever either Spaniards or Portuguese have held sway. In Chile this art has not been tinged so much with Indian influences as in Mexico. Here is found the transplanted art of the Spaniard with very little modification. There are many fine churches, of which the cathedral of Santiago is the most noted example. It is a fine specimen of ecclesiastical architecture. Hospitals and other public buildings are built with an eye to the artistic. Plazas are arranged with skill, and fine statues abound all over the cities. Municipal theatres have been built in several cities. The Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a commodious building and of artistic design. Although it will not compare with the Colon Theatre of Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. Through the aid of a subsidy from the national treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe for at least a few weeks each season.

CHAPTER XII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the industrial development of Chile there are two names of North Americans that deserve to stand side by side with those of O’Higgins and Cochrane, heroes of the war of independence. In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the memory of William Wheelwright, who had the vision of a Franklin. Chance determined the destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on the shores of the Rio de la Plata, in 1823, the youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this great continent, and he determined to devote his energies towards the development of harbours and transportation. He became a supercargo on a vessel bound around Cape Horn, and in this way reached Valparaiso. At first he was looked upon as a dreamer. American capitalists turned down his scheme, and even the British did not welcome him at first.

“If that insane Wheelwright calls here again,” said an English consul to his servant, “do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, Wheelwright went to London and succeeded in interesting some moneyed men in a scheme for direct transportation between England and the west coast. The first steamship traversed the Straits of Magellan under this concession and reached a Chilean port in 1840. This was the beginning of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable benefit in the upbuilding of Chile and Peru. It was not many years until this company was operating vessels as far as Panama.

The next vision of this master of industry was the problem of conquering the Andes. Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly insurmountable difficulties be overcome? He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera across the Andes. This port was opened and the railroad constructed as far as Copiapó. This scheme got no farther, but it was only the beginning of colossal schemes. He planned and built the railroad from Valparaiso toward the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it stopped because of lack of funds. His struggles with the opposition to this line read like some of the contests in the English Parliament over the first railroad projects. Wheelwright then turned his attention to Argentina and built the first railroad in that republic, a line from Rosario to Cordoba, a distance of two hundred and forty-six miles. His last public work was a short railroad running from Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although he had further plans for public improvements his health failed, and he sailed for London to seek medical advice, where he died that same year. His remains are buried at Newburyport, Mass., the place of his birth, where they lie amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors.

In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the 7th of July, 1811. His name was Henry Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for he made and lost several fortunes both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as treasurer of San Francisco County, California, he loaned public money to friends who did not pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to South America. He first landed in Chile. The uncompleted railroad to the capital, that had been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the mental activities of this remarkable man. For a decade the government had been planning to extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs negotiated with the government and finally secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause inserted giving a premium for each section completed within a specified time. He succeeded in building each section in the shortest period and collected the maximum premium. The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of more than a million dollars, and made a great reputation for himself. Since that time the Chilean government is very chary about such bonuses.

Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built a magnificent residence in Santiago. But his later enterprises were in Peru. He built the railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa. His greatest undertaking, however, was the famous Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest railroad in the world and one of its wonders. Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams spanned with bridges where such work seemed impossible, tunnels bored where men had to hang over precipices by means of ropes to secure a start and other obstacles of nature were overcome. Before the completion of the road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private fortune. But he accomplished the task. One hears many tales of this eccentric man in Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, although he lived in luxury and spent money lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land of his birth in order to stand before the world as an honest man.

The problem of connecting the widely separated sections of Chile with easy and convenient means of transportation has been and is a serious one. It was but natural, owing to the long extent of coast line, that the first attention of the Chilean government was given to ocean navigation. Furthermore, the Chileans have proven to be good navigators, and the record of their steamships has been very good. There has been the further advantage in developing this means of transportation in the fact that no part of Chile is very far distant from the Pacific coast. This has developed a large number of short railways, which run from the ports to the mineral or agricultural districts of the interior. There are in all sixteen ports open to international commerce, and forty-four inferior ports which are used in the coast trade. The different character of the northern, central and southern sections has created a demand for exchange of products between those sections, which has made the coast trade of great importance.

The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce of all the world as soon as the independent government was fully organized. It is a historic fact that among the first vessels that arrived in Chile, after independence had been achieved, was a frigate from New York, which brought one of the first printing presses to South America and also some American printers, who established the first Chilean periodical. At first Valparaiso claimed nearly all of the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. At that time, also, the Chilean seacoast was not more than half as long as it is at the present time. Vessels soon began to operate under the Chilean flag, although most of the first vessels were owned by foreign capital. As early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred and thirty-four national vessels, principally engaged in the coast trade. When William Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam Navigation Company a new era in Chilean prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the Chile and Peru, both of them small boats, constituted the beginning of the fleet which finally developed into the great company, which for many years plied between the west coast and Europe. It has recently been absorbed by another English company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company.

This English company, as well as other companies, were subsidized by the Chilean government, in order to get better coast service between the various ports. This service was eventually extended to the city of Panama. In 1870 the most powerful Chilean company was organized under the name of the Compañia Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became a very active competitor of the English company. The number of its vessels was continually added to, most of them being built by English shipbuilders, until to-day this company has more than twenty boats. Many of these are very comfortable steamers, of considerable capacity, and operate all the way between Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition to this company, there are a number of small companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other steamers belonging to private individuals, or business houses which carry on a coast trade more or less extensive. The Chilean company and the English company, which for a long time were active rivals, have at last entered into an operating agreement. By the terms of this agreement the government subsidy is shared, and the two companies operate an alternating service between Valparaiso and Panama. The laws of Chile governing maritime transportation are very liberal, and the fees levied at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. It has been recognized by Chile that the development of commercial relations with the various countries of America depends, to a great extent, upon the existence of regular and rapid lines of navigation which will transport products at reasonable rates.

The government has spent a great deal of money in recent years in dredging the channels, placing buoys at the dangerous points and erecting lighthouses along the coast, until to-day there are more than fifty lighthouses which are regularly maintained by Chile.

What will eventually prove to be the backbone of the Chilean railway system is termed the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is being prosecuted actively by the government at various places. When completed it is planned to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in the north, to Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance of almost two thousand miles. It has been found that wherever the railroad has been extended, development has followed. This has been especially true of the great central valley through which rails have been laid as far as Osorno, only seventy-eight miles from Puerto Montt. This line has been constructed entirely by the government. It is built of standard gauge width, and also upon the same gauge for some distance north of Santiago. Through the north central part of Chile the government roads have all been built upon the narrow gauge plan, one metre in width, because the occasional transverse spurs of the Andes, which run toward the coast, have made construction more difficult, and it has been easier to make the necessary curves by using that gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive as possible. At the present time nearly all of the energies of the government are being applied to the completion of this great project, which has already cost it many millions of dollars.

A little more than one-half of the railway mileage in Chile has been built and is owned by the government itself. It has not been a profitable enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five per cent. of the gross income for operating expenses and maintenance. One reason for this, of course, is that the government lines, many of them, have been built through thinly-settled territory, and where traffic up to the present time has been very light. Then, again, the charges upon these state railways are entirely too small, for nowhere can one travel so cheaply as upon the government railways of Chile. Then there is also the problem which a government must always face, in operating a public utility enterprise, that the officials, whose duty it is to look after the work, do not apply to it the same careful attention to detail, do not get as much work out of their employees as a private corporation, and are likely to take a chance at some form of graft when the opportunity affords. The question has been seriously considered by the government of placing the operation of the principal lines in the hands of a private company; in fact, one company has made a proposition to operate the road between Santiago and Valparaiso, and take for its profit simply what it can save in the cost of operation over the present cost.

In the northern provinces there are a number of railways operating from the coast up a greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest railway in the republic, as well as in South America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó. As heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking was due to William Wheelwright. It was his plan to continue this railway over the Andes, and it is said by engineers to present fewer difficulties than the one finally chosen, which was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite possible that the dream of the American captain of industry may some day come true as development continues. It was never extended further than the first terminus, over which the first locomotive was run in 1851. The first locomotive exported from the United States was used on this railroad. A number of short branches have now been built connecting with this main line, but rail connection with the Federal capital is still a thing of “to-morrow.”

The most northern railway runs from the port of Arica to Tacna, and is only about forty miles in length. From Arica an international railroad is being built across the Andes into Bolivia, in accordance with a treaty entered into between the two countries. It will not pass through Tacna, as an independent route has been selected which promised fewer difficulties. It is only about one hundred and forty miles to the Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a little greater distance from there to La Paz. This will make the shortest and most direct route to the Bolivian capital. The contract has been let for the entire work, but it is proceeding very slowly.

Proceeding along the coast the next railway centre is in the nitrate district, where a number of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua, Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that district, making up a total of nearly four hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some short spurs which run back into the mineral regions, and carry the ore down to that port. The principal line at this place, however, is the international railway which runs from Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and there connects with a Bolivian railway which runs to the capital, La Paz. This railway is constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge of thirty inches. The Chilean section of the railway ends at Ollague, a distance of two hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway was originally built to aid in developing some of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia. By the aid of a government subsidy, it was finally completed in 1892. This is the largest private railway enterprise in Chile. It would be difficult to imagine a more dreary route over which a railway could be planned than the Chilean section of this railway. At first the question of a water supply for the engines was a serious problem, as the water which they were able to secure easily was so permeated with minerals that it destroyed the boilers. The concession of supplying the city of Antofagasta with water was finally conceded to the railway company, and, with that monopoly as an aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more than two hundred miles to supply the water tanks of the railway and the city of Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road is quite considerable, since it is one of the two lines which at present reach from the coast to the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the freight, to and from that inland republic, is shipped by this route, in addition to the product of the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company.

In the province of Coquimbo there are several short sections of railroad, all of which were constructed by the government. In all these lines total about two hundred miles. It will not be long until Coquimbo will be connected with the main line by a longitudinal railway. In the northern section of the country there are no less than fourteen different lines, and at least three different gauges of track.

The railways of the central valley from Santiago south form the most extensive system in the republic. All of these railways, with the exception of a very few branches, belong to the state, and they form a single system which unites the principal sections of population throughout that section. The main track follows the longitudinal valley from north to south in a line which keeps to the same general direction until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system crosses no less than a dozen of the provinces of Chile. Construction has been fairly difficult, and the expense of bridges has been unusually high. There are many long and high bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, Mallico, Laja and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them have been of French construction. From Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of cross railways which run from this main line to the ports, and also some that run inland toward the Andes for a short distance. These were built by the government in its efforts to open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous zone around the Bay of Arauco there are a number of branches which connect the mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will not be long until the railway will be extended to Puerto Montt, which will complete the present plans of the government for southern extension.

There are no less than half a dozen transandine railways which have been planned, and for which concessions have been granted by the government of Chile. Two have been completed, two more have had actual work done in the way of construction and the other two are still visionary. One project, which bodes very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that will have for its terminal points the Chilean port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca, Argentina. It will run through Monte Aguila and Cholguan, and cross the Andes at Lake Laja. There it will connect with the Great Southern Railway of Argentina, which has already been built from Bahia Blanca to Neuquen, and which is now being extended from there to Chos Malal. The Andes at this point are not nearly so high as farther north, so that fewer difficulties will be encountered in the construction than on those transandine railways which have already been built. It will necessitate a tunnel about one mile in length only to pass the summit. Engineers who have surveyed this route report it as very feasible and strongly recommend it. It is several hundred miles south of both Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, passes through an extremely rich agricultural country and ought to be constructed before many years. It will be of distinct advantage to both republics.

Interest in railroad construction in Chile in recent years has centred in the transandine railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the historic route by which General San Martin led his conquering legions into that country. Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a significant event, which was duly celebrated by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half century had passed since Wheelwright first suggested to English capitalists the feasibility of a railroad across the Andes to connect the Atlantic with the Pacific, when the first train passed through the two mile tunnel that pierced the international barrier of rock at this point. Trains are now running regularly, and the interruption caused by the winter snows is at an end. This is the first line to connect the two oceans, and, to the South Americans, it was as great an event as the opening of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The distance from Valparaiso to Buenos Aires is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is hoped by the officials, however, to reduce the running time to twenty-nine hours in the course of time.

The first practical steps in this undertaking were made by two English-Chilean engineers, John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, and from Chile two years later. The Chilean government guaranteed seven per cent. on a capital of three millions of dollars. But this concession was unsatisfactory. In 1889 the actual work of construction was begun, but it was stopped after less than twenty miles had been completed. The old concession having lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the Transandine Construction company on a five per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 the road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to Caracoles, the mouth of the Chilean end of the tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to the tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance the altitude rises almost eight thousand feet. The grade in places reaches eight per cent. There are several miles of the Abt system of cogs. Tunnels and bridges are numerous, and a number of avalanche sheds have been built. The Chilean slopes of the Andes are much more abrupt than those on the Argentina side, and the work of construction has been correspondingly more difficult. It provides a grand scenic route for the jaded continental traveller that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque as anywhere else in the world.

One unfortunate feature is the differing width of track. It will be necessary to reload freight three times in the journey across the continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the gauge is standard. Between Los Andes and Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to Buenos Aires it is five feet eight inches. This may possibly be changed in the future, but it will be many years. In the meantime much trouble and extra work will be necessitated in freight traffic. To the passenger it means only a little annoyance, but not much delay.

CHAPTER XIII
RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES

In order to fully understand the anomalous position occupied by Church and State in the Spanish-American republics, it will be well to go back several centuries and study for a moment the development of the clerical policy of Spain, and its relations with the Church of Rome. With the discovery of the New World, the Church was placed in a position where it felt called upon to do something which it was next to impossible to undertake independently. It felt the responsibility of evangelizing the heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and yet it appreciated its inability to assume this burden, because it had not the means to propagate religion amongst a hostile people, which could only be advanced efficiently by means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary for the Holy See to proceed to convert the inhabitants of the New World through ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the invading forces.

In compliance with this view the Pope issued the famous bull of Alexander VI, in 1493, which is in part as follows: “We give, concede and assign them (lands in the New World) in perpetuity to you and the Kings of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and we make, constitute and depute you and your heirs and successors, the aforesaid, lords of these lands, with free, full and absolute power, authority and jurisdiction.”[2] This absolute power granted to Spain was not used against the Church, as subsequent events showed, for the priests and monks everywhere accompanied the soldiers, and conquests of the civil power were invariably attended with at least the nominal conversion of the natives to Christianity. This alliance placed in the absolute power of the king of Spain the privilege to name the priests, or other ecclesiastics, who might accompany the expeditions, and gave him absolute power over their work. All causes of friction between bishops, priests and other dignitaries were decided alone by the sovereign or his representatives in the New World, although it might be regarded entirely as a spiritual matter. Under the interpretation given to this papal authority, the King of Spain had it within his power to define the boundaries of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and the Church was even compelled to secure his consent for the erection of vicarages, churches, monasteries, convents and other places for religious worship.

One decree of the King of Spain, which is similar to many others, reads as follows: “We wish and command that there shall not be created, instituted, founded or conceded any cathedral or parochial church, monastery, hospital, votive church, or any other pious or religious place without our express command, or that of the person who shall have our authority of commission for this purpose.” And again, “That there shall not be instituted or established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry, prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other benefice or ecclesiastical or religious office without our consent or presentation.” At another time it was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, any person shall make or begin to make any of these edifices without this prerequisite the viceroys, audiencas or governors shall cause them to be demolished, and everything reduced to its previous state without cause or delay.” For the erection of the cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed one-third.

These privileges were at first jealously guarded by the royal authorities. In maintaining the right of patronage the civil courts were given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical courts, which likewise gave the civil authorities an advantage. There was in each bishopric, however, an ecclesiastical court over whose decision appeal might be made to the archbishop. The cases which might be brought before this court were those which concerned tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation, funerals, donations to churches and such other pious matters. If a case arose in which a layman brought action against a priest, this was tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a priest brought action against a layman, the cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The Church likewise had a general council, which was composed of a number of archbishops, cardinals and other high church officials. It was the general aim of the Church to have the ecclesiastical division correspond with the civil divisions of the territory, thus making the political capitals also the seats of religious authorities, although there were exceptions to this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, although the captaincy-general of Chile was independent of the vice-royalty of Peru, yet the Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the Archbishop of Lima. Thus at every step in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in America, the authority and domination of the civil power was recognized. In the first century of the colonial period the Archbishop of Lima was the metropolitan for all of South America under Spanish rule, but this was later divided.

Wherever the Spaniards established themselves in America, they made the natives serfs, and forced them to approximately unrequited labour. Looking upon these natives as an inferior race, it soon became unpopular among the Spaniards to perform any labour which might be considered menial. This made the opportunities for profitable employment comparatively scarce. The doors of the monasteries were always open, however, and the life within the cloisters, although seemingly one of self abnegation and denial, in reality offered opportunities for intellectual development, for vague contemplation and day dreaming, and also a chance to enjoy more of the things of the world than fell to the lot of the average man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore, the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were at the disposal of the representatives of the Crown gave opportunities to those persons to favour friends who wore the cloak of the Church, which they could not do if the same persons were following secular pursuits, because of the limited number of positions at their disposal in civil life. Hence it was that the ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited not so much from those who were religiously inclined, as from those who sought ease, indulgence in the appetites and passions, and were ambitious for power and authority.

A century after the beginning of Spanish rule, the missionaries on the frontier had lost their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter assisted in advancing the civilization of the natives very little. The cupidity of those priests, who were not noted for their piety, was excited by the opportunities which their position gave them. There were numerous opportunities to charge fees and perquisites for the services required of them, and they took full advantage of it. Furthermore, they sold to the Indians various articles, such as rosaries and images, at an enormous profit, and persuaded them to labour upon their buildings and in their little settlements without compensation other than a bare living. Likewise many persons who had acquired great wealth in the New World, but had probably lived reckless and immoral lives, when nearing the end of life were anxious to secure absolution for their sins, and as short an experience as possible in the purgatory of the next world. The representatives of the Church urged upon them the necessity of giving all of their worldly goods into its keeping, in return for the desired absolution. The mysticism with which the Church surrounded itself was favourable to the securing of such a boon, and the monastic and convent orders accordingly accumulated great wealth.

Thus it was that the power of the Church in the later period of colonial rule was greatly increased through the accumulation of wealth, and through the access to its ranks of men who were influenced by political and covetous, rather than pious principles. After a century or more from the beginning of Spanish rule the church dignitaries were able to a great extent to defy the civil authorities. As a natural consequence, the civil authorities then sought the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics. The evil effects of these various influences upon the Church can be traced down even to the present time in Chile, as well as the other countries in South America. Most of the political troubles have been the result of friction between the conservatives, who were aided by the Church, and the liberals, who were intent upon restricting the power of that body.

The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile is still enormous, even after a considerable portion of it has been taken by the government for public uses. Many of the public school and college buildings were formerly the property of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It is said that the church property in Santiago alone is worth not less than one hundred million dollars in gold. It owns some of the best business blocks, as well as hundreds of houses, and great haciendas upon which wine is manufactured and other products raised. A great part of this wealth is owned by the various orders established in the country. The Carmelite nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy organization and possess an enormous income. These nuns never allow their faces to be seen by men. The monastic order, known as the Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy body. They dress in black hats and gowns, with white flannel undergowns which reach clear to the feet. This gives them quite a strange appearance to one not familiar with the sight of such costumes worn by religious orders.

The Catholic Church of the west coast of South America is less liberal than on the east coast. The reason for this condition, probably, is that it has been less influenced by outside causes, because of the comparative isolation of the countries and remoteness from Europe. One will find still less liberality as you proceed along the west coast from Chile northward. In Chile, there is an element of tolerance towards other forms of worship, at least on the part of the officials. Protestant churches exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and quite a number of mission workers are busily engaged in spreading their doctrines. In Peru, a few Protestant congregations exist. They are not allowed to own churches, and their congregations are gathered together by printed invitations, which is simply a means of evading the letter of the law that is permitted by the authorities. In Ecuador, although the government attempts to observe religious tolerance, yet the power of the priesthood is so strong that Protestant workers outside of Quito and Guayaquil are oftentimes exposed to danger of violence.

“The religion of the republic of Chile is the Roman Apostolic Catholic to the exclusion of any other.” These are the words of the Constitution of Chile, which thus gives to the Roman Catholic Church the protection and support of the government. Nevertheless religious freedom prevails for, by an act of July 27, 1865, it was established that those who do not profess the Roman Catholic religion are allowed to worship within the enclosure of private buildings, and are permitted to establish and maintain schools in the doctrine of their respective faiths. From a religious standpoint the republic is divided into one archbishopric, three bishoprics and two vicarages. The cathedral at Santiago is the church of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence for his use stands alongside of the church. The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages have been established at Antofagasta and Tarapacá.

The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is as different from the same church in the United States as it is possible for two branches of the same general head to be. There is no spirit of liberality, and no general purpose to recognize religious freedom except as it is compelled by law. The influx of foreigners has naturally modified things to some extent, because many of those coming in have been members of Protestant denominations, but the old condition of affairs has not yet been entirely eradicated.

It is the women who support the Church, and they are intense devotees of its worship. The men are generally absolutely indifferent to religion in any form. As a prominent Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the women attend to the religious duties.” This statement seemed to be borne out by the facts, as a number of visits to different churches at the hour of mass showed that not one out of perhaps fifteen or twenty present were men. The others were entirely women, girls and small children. The power of the priesthood over the women is very strong, and it is in this way that they exert whatever influence they have, as the women will blindly do anything that the priests advise them to do.

This condition of affairs would be less reprehensible, if every member of the priesthood was an intelligent and proper person. It is an unfortunate fact, however, that many members of the priesthood come from the lower strata of society, rather than from the higher. They are persons of low intelligence, rather than men of high attainments. To this class of priests is due many of the strange practices which one will find in the churches, or see done in the name of the Church in the remote districts. Some of the processions are so grotesque that they seem almost ridiculous, and certainly would not have the direct approval of the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: “The ignorant people of these regions are fond of demonstrations in which they can participate, and it does them more good to carry a banner and walk in a procession than you can imagine. If the Church does not provide such amusements, the politicians will do so, and it is very important that we keep our people under our own control.” It is upon this theory, that the ignorant natives demand these public processions, that they are permitted to exist. But the fact that they also provide a considerable source of revenue probably has something to do with their continuation as well.

In the city of Santiago a festival is held each year, which is a fair illustration of the origin of many of these local celebrations. On the fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city a most disastrous earthquake. It was learned that a woman in that city, who had been disgusted with the refusal of her particular saint to answer her prayers, tore the image from the altar, and, stripping it of its decorations, threw it into the street. At that very moment the earthquake began. As it happened, however, a priest who was hurrying away from danger saw the image, picked it up and carried it into a neighbouring church, where it was reverently placed upon an altar. At that very moment the earthquake ceased, and so from that time to this the fifth of May is a holiday, which is second in importance only to Independence Day. It used to be that this image was taken from the altar on these occasions, carried through the streets under a scarlet canopy, and was followed by a procession which included the president of the republic, his cabinet, members of congress, justices, archbishop, bishop and all of the other prelates of the Church and thousands of people with bands of music and regiments of soldiers. This saint became known as Saint Cinco de Mayo (Saint Fifth of May), because the woman who threw it into the street and her family were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible to ascertain what particular saint it was originally intended to represent. In recent years, however, this celebration has lost much of its importance, although the Church still recognizes it as a regular holiday in its calendar.

The high fees charged for the services of the Church have been much criticized, and deservedly so. In most places not a single service will be performed without the payment of the fee in advance. This is specially to be condemned in the case of the fees that are charged for marriages. Although a marriage to be legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony, for which only a small charge is made, yet those who are devoted to the Church consider the religious ceremony the essential one. As the priests will not perform this ceremony without the regular fee being paid, which amounts to several dollars, and the contracting parties do not consider the civil ceremony as of any value, because they are so instructed by the priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony is performed, and an injustice is done to all parties concerned. Even in the higher circles great confusion sometimes arises where the man, for instance, considers the civil ceremony necessary, and the woman, under the advice of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. The result has been considerable confusion, and also has made the Church and civil authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other in many instances.

Many claim that South America is not a legitimate field for Protestant missionary work. Their theory is that the country was at one time evangelized by missionaries, and therefore should not be touched by other missionary effort. The fact is that religious conditions in South America savour much of the darkness of the Middle Ages. There is to-day an unbelief and utter indifference to spiritual things among the men, which is hard to realize until one has had actual contact with it. Whatever effort can better these conditions, and thereby improve the morals of the people, should be encouraged. The Roman Catholics pursue their efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, and they should not be criticized for so doing. If they can reach a class or element that has not been touched by Protestant effort, they are thereby doing good for that nation and the world in general. True religion and true Christianity should be recognized and encouraged under whatever name it may be found. It would be far better if the Catholic Church in Chile, and other South American countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, and join hands with them in their efforts to raise the standards of living among the people.

One will find signs of the Protestant invasion of Chile from Arica, in the extreme north, to Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally been accompanied by educational enterprise, of which there are several splendid examples in Chile. One of these is the American College for Girls, and the Instituto Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which are in Santiago. The former, which is under the control and direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a national reputation in Chile, and many of the very best families send their girls to that college for their education. It is recognized as giving the very best education that can be obtained in the Republic, and the enrollment has included the names of the children of presidents of the republic, and many others in high authority. The same may be said of the latter institution, which is under the control of the American Presbyterian Church, and which is always crowded to its utmost capacity, with many names upon the waiting list who cannot be accommodated. The patrons of the two institutions understand that the schools are Protestant schools, that the Bible is read and studied, that morning prayers are compulsory, but beyond that the students are at liberty to attend any religious services that may be desired by the parents. Outside of the regular religious services, no effort is made to alienate the students from the church in which they have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct grammar schools at Concepción and Iquique, and schools of the primary and lower grammar grades at other places. In all more than fifty day schools are conducted by these two denominations. The work that has been begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and the results have been very satisfactory to those engaged in the work.

At the present time the American Presbyterian and the Methodist Episcopal Churches are the only American denominations that are aggressively doing missionary work in Chile. The former began their work in 1873, and the latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty missionaries and a large number of native workers assisting them, and have established fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have twenty-six missionaries, and these workers, together with native helpers, are at work in sixty-five different communities. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union Church, to which members of various Protestant bodies come for the religious services, and both of these churches are doing a very effective work.

The Protestant Anglican Church was the first to begin any evangelistic work in Chile. Its first mission was established more than sixty years ago. They began work in the extreme south, and still have stations on Tierra del Fuego for the Indians. They also have churches at Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, Concepción and Punta Arenas for the English-speaking people who live in those cities.

The American and British Bible Societies have aggressively spread over the country. The colporteurs of these societies have gone up and down over the country, by train and coach, on foot and mule-back, with copies of the Scriptures in various languages. These books are sold for a very small sum, and, if the person is too poor to buy, they are freely given. The work has not always been easy or pleasant, for such deep prejudice is oftentimes encountered that insults and little indignities have followed.

CHAPTER XIV
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE

The subjugation and colonization of Chile was due to two causes. Pedro de Valdivia, who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted an empire for himself, and Francisco Pizarro was desirous of ridding himself of so formidable a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously permitted to march into and conquer at his own expense the country south of Peru. After many months of preparation Valdivia set out on his expedition with one hundred and fifty Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, one thousand Indians, mostly carriers, and a supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of many European plants. Thus equipped this cavalier set out from Lima, and marched across the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama. He reached the central valley of Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard through sickness or desertion—a remarkable record.

The first few years were hard ones for these colonists. Santiago was founded and made the capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. Several small parties of reinforcements arrived, but the Spaniards’ position was always precarious because of the fierce Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551, misfortune followed misfortune in the new colony. Garcia Hurlado de Mendoza, one of the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. This man was a mere youth with no experience, and his rule was fraught with disaster. He established churches and monastic orders, provided magnificent shows and spectacles, but did not materially improve the condition of the colony. Then came Francisco and Pedro de Villagran and a number of other governors,—some good and more of them bad. The colony slowly increased in numbers, but constant war with the Indians prevented it from growing rapidly. The coast was swept several times by Dutch and English pirates. Earthquakes and plagues reaped their harvests from the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. Thus passed the sixteenth, seventeenth and part of the eighteenth centuries. It would be impossible within the limits of this volume to detail all events, but some of the Indian wars are mentioned in another chapter.[3] The usual narrow-sighted policy of Spain toward all her dependencies was followed, and the local disaffection grew more acute each year.

It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads to independence.” The colonial system of Spain in South and Central America, of which the writer has had occasion to treat before, was one of selfishness, cruelty and tyranny. Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to sell goods to the colonists, and the colonists were permitted to sell their products only to the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, owing to the monopoly granted them, of as much as three hundred per cent. Local human rights were not recognized by the government of Spain. It was treason for a man to assert his freedom, or to seek a free field for his labour. The natives were compelled to labour for the conquerors without profit. Imposing buildings were constructed, cities were encircled with massive walls, great monasteries, churches, and convents rose on the hills, all by the unrequited toil of generations of these impressed natives. Education was denied, and the local government, including the church officials, united in this system of repression and disregard of human rights.

There was, however, another element which entered into final independence. For this we must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles IV had resigned his throne in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. The colonists accepted this change because of their loyalty to the heredity in line of succession, which had to them a religious as well as political significance. Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication and appealed to Napoleon, who was then in the height of his power, alleging that the abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon poured troops into Spain, and it was not long until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. Napoleon then placed his favourite brother, Joseph, upon the throne of Spain. Joseph was a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more principle than his brother, who, perhaps, would have done well by the colonists, had he been permitted to work out their destinies. The colonists, however, felt no loyalty toward him, and would not recognize his authority. When Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the throne after the downfall of Napoleon, he became a tyrant, and violently opposed all liberal ideas. The despotism that Napoleon had overthrown was reestablished. These mistaken moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period of a few years during which the Crown had been opposed, and the free air of America all had tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and opposition to monarchy in the New World. It was not long before Chile was caught in the same whirl as the rest of the Spanish-American provinces.

The approach of the end of almost three centuries of the colonial system in Chile does not speak well for Spain. Trade was still restricted. The post-office was a monopoly that had been farmed out to a private person. A mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain once in two months, and from there the mails were transported across the Andes. There was a post once a month between Concepción and Santiago, and twice a week between Santiago and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers or travellers for their despatches. The only manufactures were the making of brandy and wine, drying beef and tanning hides.

No city, except Santiago, had more than six thousand people, and that city had perhaps thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting, bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. The buildings were creditable, but the streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. People who went abroad at night had their servants carry lanterns before them. Vice and disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls and assassination were frequent. Begging was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility were common, and had been purchased by many unworthy persons. Decorations of membership in orders of nobility had been scattered broadcast. There was not even a school for girls in Santiago. The majority of the people still lived in the country in homes that were without conveniences. They had little furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio in which each wandering missionary was expected to celebrate mass. The Indians were held in practical slavery, and the landlords administered justice over their tenants. A sentimental attachment, and also fear that a bad condition might be made worse, kept these poor humans from leaving. Diseases often became epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, so that thousands were at times swept away. Concepción lost a fourth of its population one year through the ravages of smallpox. It is probable that at the beginning of the nineteenth century the total population of Chile, exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not exceed a half million.

There are two men by the name of O’Higgins prominent in Chilean history. The first, Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in 1730, of humble parentage. His uncle, a Spanish priest, sent the youth to South America, and he finally landed in Chile. He first became a trader and peddler, and then an engineer. During this latter employment he built the casuchas, as the rest houses in the Uspallata pass are called. He also distinguished himself in fights with the Indians, so that he received government recognition. Plain Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the Irish youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, became successively Marquis of Osorno, governor of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. He died at the age of eighty, in Peru, while he was filling the latter office. His administration was marked by indefatigable activity. It was not until he was sixty-eight years of age that he became captain-general of Chile, which position he held for eight years. He introduced a number of agricultural reforms and set aside many of the abuses on the plantations. He constructed a passable road between Valparaiso and the capitol, where none had hitherto been built, as the Spaniards were content to ride on mules and carry their goods the same way. He improved the road over the Andes via the Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had greatly increased. Altogether the things accomplished by this energetic Irishman were remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a great deal of good for Chile and Peru. Had all the governors and viceroys been men of similar character history would probably read differently.

The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences for Spain. In that year Hidalgo sounded the grito of independence in Mexico, and the memorable assembly met in Buenos Aires, which was the forerunner of a successful revolution. The news of the latter event, which happened on the 25th of May, soon reached Santiago and fanned the fires of revolution. On the 18th of September three hundred and fifty electors met in that city and elected a junta to take charge of the government. A quiet submission to the new order of things followed for a few months. A Congress was elected and opened with solemn religious ceremonies and many eloquent speeches. But jealousies soon arose over the personnel of the government junta, and several years of conflict with Spain and internal dissension followed. The leaders of the patriot forces were Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, and San Martin, an Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed in the main by three brothers, named Carrera. Though leaders for a while these brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was the ablest one, all met violent deaths at the hands of their indignant countrymen.