It has been affirmed that the smoke of towns, however disagreeable it may be to the inhabitants, neutralizes the poisonous effect of the gases caused by sewers, &c. If it was possible wholly to remove carbon evolved by smoke, our towns would almost be uninhabitable, and they represent that any scheme for getting rid of smoke must be combined with one for getting rid of the exhalations from sewers at the same time. If the two evils were brought together, they would neutralize each other, and both could then be got rid of at one operation. The best scheme for this is a matter of important consideration, but few have been proposed.

It may be asked, what has a work on Picturesque Architecture to do with either smoke or sewer gases? The author in reply considers that buildings never will look picturesque while they are covered with great patches of soot. An eminent sculptor once affirmed that the statues of London were improved by their soot covering, because it made them stand boldly out against the sky. But those beautiful decorated smoke towers which stand on the roof of the Houses of Parliament, and which are as black as Erebus, look anything but pleasing, standing amidst the whiter front of the rest of the building. Besides, tall-boys are beginning to make their appearance on the roof under the Victoria tower, and these certainly form no part of the architecture, but appear monstrously ugly; consequently smoke and its abolition are clearly questions to be considered in relation to Picturesque Architecture.

A plan for removing smoke from the atmosphere of towns, and at the same time ventilating buildings and sewers, was proposed in 1849 by Mr. Flockton, surveyor to the town trustees of Sheffield,[F] a town as much begrimed with sooty smoke, only in a smaller way, as the Metropolis.

The proposal was, that under the footways along the side of every street and lane, flues should be constructed of sufficient capacity to carry off all the smoke and other atmospheric impurities, these flues all converging, upon a general plan, to tall shafts or chimneys at some distance from the town, and supplied with furnaces. These, when the fires were once ignited, would give a fire produced by the combustion of the inflammable gases accompanying the smoke, and which would burn spontaneously in a similar manner to the combustion of foul air from old shafts connected with coal mines. The combustion might be assisted by jets of coal gas, in a fire of coke.

In very large towns it would be necessary, Mr. Flockton added, to divide the whole into districts, and to erect towers in the centre of each, to which all the flues should converge. He published a plate, showing two large dwelling-houses, with a street between, the common sewer in the middle of the carriage way, and the smoke flues on each side under the footpaths, also showing the connexion between the sewer and flue. The alteration proposed to houses already erected consisted in converting ascending into descending flues; turning the smoke from the chimney-top into the latter, and from thence into the street flue. This operation would have necessitated the pulling down and rebuilding of the flue walls. The street smoke flues, in order to carry off the smoke from a few thousand chimneys, would require to have been made of a size even larger than the sewer itself. Provision must have been made for clearing out the soot, for the smoke would have been cooled and the soot would accumulate in large quantities in them.

The same scheme, with similar constructions, was proposed by a foreign gentleman, who took out a patent for it in 1850 (No. 13,061). His plan was a very grand one; he did not propose alterations in existing buildings, but pulled them down and gave designs for a new city.

A more practical plan was proposed about 1851 by Mr. Devey, a surveyor of Furnival’s Inn. A model of his invention was in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and it is described and an engraving given of it in the illustrated volumes published by the Royal Exhibition Commissioners at the close of the Exhibition. The model is now in the Museum at South Kensington. Mr. Devey’s plan was to make only one descending flue to each building, to which the flues at the top could be either connected or not, at pleasure; the descending flue was carried to the sewer in the middle of the street, and the action of this was to be assisted by the heat of the kitchen fire. He says, “The smoke would be drawn down by the current produced by exhaustion in the sewer, the action being assisted by the kitchen fire.” Mr. Devey did not propose to have furnace shafts, but depended entirely upon the sewer acting as an exhaust.

In this scheme the objections were, that one descending flue was not sufficient to carry off the smoke from several chimneys, and the sewer certainly would not act as an exhaust without its being connected with upright furnaces. Our sewers generally have ventilating openings which permit their odours to ascend into our streets. Soot would no doubt neutralize these odours—this, a paper in a late Quarterly Review (April, 1866) admits. First, speaking of the sewer gases, the reviewer says: “These offensive gases have often engendered formidable diseases, and have, in several instances of late, been clearly shown to have caused the outbreak both of typhoid fever and cholera.” Of this the author has had proof during the outbreak of cholera in London in 1849. He was superintending the construction of a mass of buildings in one of the worst dwelling districts in London. This builder, who had just finished the erection of Harrington House, a description of which is given in this volume, died the first night of the outbreak in the greatest agony; he was a strong robust man; from one to three deaths took place in every house in the locality; a black flag was put up in the streets, and the foul fiend reigned for a while supreme. A large mass of the worst buildings have been cleared away, and model lodging-houses erected, but a considerable portion of the rotten old structures remain, the sewers are untouched, and the visitation of the cholera forgotten.

The Quarterly Review says there is no reason why ordinary sewers should not be made to serve the double purpose of carrying off smoke and sewage at the same time, provided they were connected here and there with high shafts rendered powerfully expansive by furnaces; and adds, “sewage would be improved for agricultural purposes by admixture with soot, which is an excellent manure, and the noxious qualities of the sewer gases would be destroyed.” Whether soot would increase the value of sewage or decrease it, is a question for chemists to decide; a generally increasing opinion is, that our method of using sewage by liquefaction and sending it away, is a mistake, and renders it quite worthless, and that the system of dry earth-closets is more conformable to Nature’s laws.

The subject was taken up in 1857 by Mr. Peter Spence, of Manchester, a large alum manufacturer.[G] This gentleman states that the “blacks,” the horror of the Londoner, are guiltless of any deleterious effect to human health, as carbon is one of the most anti-putrescent of bodies, and while floating in the atmosphere over everything, arrest and destroy noxious and miasmatic vapours. Perfect freedom from smoke would, if accomplished, only increase the evil arising from the purely gaseous results of combustion. He proposed a system of atmospheric or gaseous sewage, and the complete removal of all their gases to a safe distance from our towns. He would combine this gaseous sewage in such a form with town drainage as would bring all the liquid sewage into contact with the gases from our furnaces and house fires, the liquid sewage being kept from all surface drainage. The same liquid and fœtid mass of sewage he would concentrate in an innoxious form, to be converted, in a convenient place, where it might with perfect safety be manufactured into manure more valuable than the richest guano.

For effecting this all the gases from our coal combustion would have to be conveyed along the same tunnel with the sewage to centralizing conduits converging to a point, where an immense chimney, 600 ft. high, should be erected, to discharge these gases into the atmosphere, the ascensive power being obtained either from the retained heat of the gases, which would probably be found quite sufficient, or if not, artificial heat could then be applied to effect the object. The chimney should be of the internal diameter of 100 ft. at the top, and 140 ft. external diameter at the bottom. This would take the smoke from 500 chimneys and every particle of foul emanation from the sewer, and every leak or opening to the upward air from these sewers would not then emit foul gases, but draw in fresh air with a pressure or suction of three and a half pounds per foot, and with a velocity of 40 feet per second. This gentleman says: “It is idle to talk of trapping, and thus confining gases evolved under ground; exit they must and will have, and when you imagine you have secured them in one place, you will find them pouring out in another.” He makes this plain by an illustration. He took an old-fashioned detached house; after entering into possession he found frequently very disagreeable smells, especially after rain, a change of wind, or a fall of the barometer; it may be remarked here that it was not necessary to take an old-fashioned house to find out this; in more modern built houses in London, after a fall in the barometer or rain, such a thing is repeatedly occurring. Mr. Spence, to cure the evil in his old mansion, exhausted all the remedies which the philosophy of London schemes acknowledges; he trapped all the exits from the sewer with the most approved patent girds; all slopstone pipes were cut and water-luted. But this was of no use, the smell came through the very walls and floors, and one bedroom on the first floor, which showed no connexion with the sewer, was quite uninhabitable. He adopted a plan which succeeded: a branch from the main sewer was brought right under the kitchen grate, from that a pipe of cast iron, four inches in diameter, was carried up through the brickwork, and the open top projected into the chimney a yard and a half behind the kitchen fire, above the fire. When this fire was again lighted, in a few hours the house was perfectly sweet, and the distant bedroom, uninhabitable before, has been slept in ever since. When this nuisance occurs in a London house the only remedy is to open the doors and windows to get rid of it, as we are not allowed to meddle with the sewers. Disagreeable effluvia in dwellings often occur, and baffle every endeavour to trace from where they proceed; in every case it is from choked-up drains or the sewer, and the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter therein retained.

As for Mr. Spence’s scheme, its grandeur almost stops its execution. It is well known that in all large manufactories, and in gas works, a tall chimney serves to draw out the smoke from the numerous fires, and it forms a smoke-outlet for them all. In most of these places the fuel is used up so completely that it is only the gases of combustion that are drawn away. Mr. Spence’s scheme has been successfully tried in its application to private residences, and also on a large scale to the new Assize Courts in Manchester. It was adopted by one of the architects in the competitive designs for the New Law Courts in London.

If these tall shafts and furnaces were applied in London, it may be questioned whether the smoke in cooling would not deposit the soot in the sewer, and this must be removed, if not run off by water. The flues connecting the house fires with the sewer would be partly horizontal, and these would certainly fill with soot, and no machines we have at present in use could clean out these flues from above. The operation must be performed from within the sewer, and then these flues being unsupplied with drain-eyes at their entrance to the sewer, would form so many open channels for the passage of the sewer gases into the houses. This would be the case in a very great degree where there were no fires in the stoves and their register doors were open. It would require an immense consumption of fuel in the high stalks to cause a current to prevent it, and the furnaces must be close together to lessen the cooling effects of cold currents of air from flues not in use.

As to the mere ventilation of the sewer itself, it could easily be effected by single drain pipes 6 inches in diameter, placed at intervals, from the sewer to the ash-pit of any neighbouring furnace. It would be probably to the advantage of the furnace itself, as even the tall stalks must sometimes make black smoke. A legislative enactment should require their owners to let them perform this service. It might require strong furnaces and plenty of them to effect it. A suggestion for getting rid of that “monster nuisance, London smoke” was made known in the Builder about 1859, by Messrs. Bruce Neil. It is thus described: “The plan consists in placing small tanks containing water over the chimney (the chimney-pots being fixed inside the tanks, and made of a spiral and bent form). The chill of the water gradually condenses the smoke, which becomes decomposed and destroyed, being precipitated at the bottom of the tank in the form of mineral tar. The water is turned on and off daily. It will be here observed that in the event of a fire in the chimney the flames cannot spread, as they are immediately quenched by the water in the tank. According to Mr. Bruce Neil’s calculation, the smoke of 80 tons of coal, if collected, will yield upwards of 28 barrels of tar, of 2½ cwt. each. He proposes that the Legislature, or the Society of Arts, should offer a premium to the person who will undertake to rid us of this monster nuisance and convert the smoke into tar, so as to make it applicable to commercial purposes. In the adoption of the above plan a slight alteration in the mode of ventilating our apartments is all that is required, he tells us.

As to the possibility of converting smoke into tar by such means as are above described, some doubts might be expressed if it could really be done; the remedy would be worse even than the disease, every household using yearly 20 tons of coal would have in that time to remove 7 barrels or 17½ cwt. of tar from their roof. The Builder, in publishing this suggestion, did not give any diagram or sketch showing how the process was to be effected. Mr. Bruce Neil no doubt made one, as he speaks of the alteration required in the ventilation of our apartments; a drawing would at least have explained how the water was to collect the soot, and how it was to have access to the flue in case of its being on fire.

The suggestion of collecting soot at the chimney-top by means of water was a valuable one, and there is no doubt it could be done to some extent, but not by encircling the pots with cold water, which would chill the smoke and prevent the soot from rising. A

design is here given, fig. 23, to show how it could be effected.

It will be seen that the chimney-pot or funnel has a zinc cover carried by stout ironwork surrounding it; a is the water, b the pipe to convey it away; it would be self-acting, and being washed by every shower would not be likely to get out of order. The rain-water must be looked for as to supply—to pay for high service for the roof of our houses to the water companies would not do.

Our climate is more damp than cold, and a considerable quantity of rain falls on our roofs. The zinc cover is spread out, so as to retain as large a portion as possible of the rain-fall. In winter, when there is most smoke, there is most water, with little or no evaporation. A pool of water could be thus collected, and the smoke projected over it would lose some portion of its soot, which could be floated away by the pipe into a receptacle provided for it in the back yard. The water might be sent into the drain and the soot left; or it could be sent into the drain as well.

The arrows in the diagram show the direction of the smoke, and the cover is so spread out and curved as to render it unlikely for any violent wind to flow out both water and soot into the street beneath.

Certainly coal smoke is a great nuisance; it is yearly pointed out as such by our paper the Times, in one, probably two, very excellently written leaders. Even the youngest member of the press, the Echo, in one of the common London fogs occurring in April, 1868, thus remarks: “The most sad and remarkable circumstance about the fog of yesterday was that the newspapers and people in the streets spoke of it as a ‘visitation,’ as a ‘gigantic pall,’ as if, indeed, the black darkness was something as strange and unaccountable as a fall of frogs or fishes from the sky. Of course it was nothing but our own familiar coal smoke which stopped the way of the sunlight. It is most lamentable that Londoners are becoming so used to this filthy nuisance that nothing more than a passing exclamation is uttered when it is forced down upon them in such volumes as to produce almost the darkness of midnight at midday. If ‘cleanliness is next to godliness,’ then the people of London must have been yesterday the most ungodly people in the world, for nothing would remain clean which was exposed to the fog of that morning. A plague of locusts would not create more terror and sense of ruin in any foreign capital, where every article of dress and furniture and house decoration, both external and internal, would have been regarded as spoiled by the loss of freshness. But London received its coat of dirt yesterday, and to-day only wonders with the remark ‘how dark it was!’ Will nothing move us to abate the nuisance? Is there no hope but that distant one of the exhaustion of our coal-beds? Must we inhale coal-blacks, and always contemplate dirty houses and grimy furniture? Is it not possible by smoke sewers, or some contrivance or machinery, to relieve us of this plague?” It is very possible it could be done with the greatest ease, but at some first expense; and in some generation or other it will be written that it found London foul and left it sweet, and there will be a time when this will be appreciated; and the man who gives the city the pure atmosphere of a small country town will receive all due honour and acknowledgment, that is, when he is in his grave and securely buried.

The public have so long been accustomed to be choked with smoke, and their health affected by deleterious gases, that they look upon the proposal of any scheme to secure pure air as the hallucinations of dreamy philosophers or inexperienced Utopians.

None of our present flues can, in the very slightest degree, stop these aqueous vapours from ascending into the atmosphere, neither can they effect any purification of the smoke, or retain the blacks for any useful purpose; and it is of no use disguising the fact that any contrivance or appliance, to effect either of these most desirable objects, must consist of an additional construction to the flue, which will be attended with additional expense, and require extra attention. Therefore any such appliance, if introduced, should be effectual, and repay such additional cost to its owner, by a saving, or at least a more economical use of fuel.

The appliance to the flue the author has to recommend, he considers will not only cause an economical use of the fuel by not permitting the present waste of heat, but it will purify the smoke, and retain the blacks for any useful object to which they can be applied.

The principle of the best-constructed flue at present is to get rid of all vapour, smoke, and soot as soon as possible, without the slightest consideration for the people outside. That the smoke should not return to annoy the occupants within the house is the aim of the constructors, and to secure this, the waste of heat in the chimney, and the consequent waste of fuel, is considered of no importance, for is it not the hot smoke that carries up the soot and ventilates the apartment?

This operation of the flue could be taken advantage of. In the construction of chimney-flues in a wall they are often turned at an angle to the right or left to pass an obstruction, such as a fireplace or timber placed within or against the wall. A flue could easily be taken out of the wall and returned, and if the part so taken out was formed in cast iron with a small cistern of water at top, it would become a warm-water pedestal, and could moderately warm or air an apartment in which it was placed; the author calls this the flue pedestal, and it is represented in the following cut.

It is about three feet six in height, not much higher than a small cabinet. The door could open, and a small tap supplying warm water for domestic use would be seen. Thus the upper rooms of a house could be warmed or aired by the fires below in perfect safety, and the present waste of heat in the flues prevented. This would be economical, as in most cases no fires would be necessary in the upper rooms.

The flue thus brought out in iron could contain a fine spray of water, that would draw up the smoke, and take down its vapours and soot at the same time into the sewer.

Fig. 25 shows a section of the flue thus brought out. The wall is two bricks thick, the flue a, is 9 inches in diameter, d is the cast-iron flue, and another, e, shaped like a funnel, is placed behind it, to collect the soot and water, and pass it off through the pipe h. The cistern is partly within the walls and partly covering the two flues. It is not necessary that the water in the cistern should supply the spray: that might be done by a separate pipe with a tap to turn off and on as desirable; b is the moveable pedestal covering the whole.

The adaptation of this simple contrivance to any kind of domestic chimney-flue is not a very difficult operation. It is only necessary to take out the brickwork in front of a flue of a height of 4 to 5 feet, and then introduce the iron flue, gathering up the brickwork beneath it; the section, fig. 25, supposes the iron flues to be in an external wall; should it be required in a party wall the soot goes off at g g, to be conveyed outside the building in the nearest way; doors are provided for the purpose of sweeping; any down

draught of air in the chimney might expend itself in the soot flue, and the smoke having passed the spray could not return. The spray of water should be equal to the whole width of the flue, and proportioned in strength to the work it has to do; the smoke from a whole group of flues might be conducted to one powerful spray, one upper flue or chimney would then suffice for the roof, while the soot and flues in any number might be formed into one before passing to the sewer.

The pipe h, shown in fig. 25, would not form an open communication with the sewer; it would be supplied with a flap-cover or drain-eye, like the common house drain at its extremity. This would open only when sufficient water and soot was behind it, and close when it was passed. It would not require sweeping, the water keeping it clear. It should have another kind of drain-eye to that at present in use, the lid, or flap of which is hinged from the top, the soot floating on the surface of the water, would require the flap to open from below. Fig. 26 shows the kind of drain-eye that would be required.

If it was not for the difficulty of the present form of drain-eye to our houses, the soot flue might discharge its contents into the house drains at once, below the trappings; there is probably no absolute necessity at all for drain-eyes at the termination of house drains, their use is to make precaution doubly sure, to prevent the rising of the gases from the sewer, and to keep out the rats, to prevent them, by getting through the traps, from entering the house.

Experiments were made with a shower of water in Mr. Cubitt’s descending flue. It will be seen by inspecting the figures 1 to 8 that these flues could easily be formed into one, and taken into the drain; the experiment did not succeed, as none will, that brings heavy smoke in opposition to a water-fall. The smoke must go with the current or water-shower, and not against it.

The flue pedestal, with its water-spray, is the whole of the contrivance by which the author believes the smoke of the domestic hearth could be got rid of, or rendered inoffensive. What the action of the water would be on the gases that escape from the fuel he cannot say, but he presumes it could not be other than beneficial.

He experimented on the subject a few years ago, and had a stove and flue erected about ten feet in height; the lower part of the stove was of brick, the upper part with the cistern of zinc. The coal fire was lighted, and as soon as black smoke appeared at the chimney-top, the water-valve was lifted and about 16 fine jets of water were sprayed against a piece of loose perforated zinc, suspended in the flue; this zinc is shown in fig. 25; in the second flue e (it should have been marked f, but by a mistake in the cutting it is made d), the smoke had to pass through under this perforated zinc to get to the chimney above. On the instant the water was applied, the smoke appeared at the chimney-top of a light colour, and it came out of the soot receptacle, placed a little height above the ground, nearly as much as it did at top, and of a similar light vapourish character,[H] a sure sign that it was drawn down by the current of water. Soot in large quantities was soon seen in the receptacle; the author has not ascertained the quantity of soot which would be obtained by this process from a ton of coals, but he believes it would be very considerable, possibly two sacks or more. As clean unmixed soot is worth in London 2s. 6d. per sack, if this soot were retained it would pay for the extra expense of the water, and the retaining of it, and to carry off the water would be an easy operation.

The “blacks” are good things at present in their wrong place; they could in the way proposed be very easily got rid of, and if it were possible to cut into all the chimneys of London and apply the remedy, the whole of the soot, which at present escapes into the atmosphere, might be caught and passed into the drains; it would there probably fully deodorize them. It is certainly not possible, from the herculean nature of the task, to disturb the whole of the chimneys of London, but the worst only might be operated upon, such as the chief kitchen flues of the great establishments, which are continually sending out black smoke.

Among the chief offenders are our bakers, nearly twenty of them being fined weekly for this by the magistrates, and for fires occurring in their chimneys. It appears that the Smoke Nuisance Act bears hardly upon them; the smoke-consuming apparatus forced upon them by the Act has utterly failed in its purpose, and it is impossible for them to comply with the requirements of the Act, and carry on their business in a satisfactory manner either to themselves or the public. They have applied to the Home Secretary for relief, and a bill to repeal so much of the Act 16 and 17 Vict. that relates to bakehouses has been in contemplation.

There would be no difficulty in placing a flue pedestal in their flues at any height above their oven fires; it would not only relieve their neighbours from the annoyance of black smoke from their chimneys, but it would secure the chimneys themselves from taking fire. The water need only be turned on when required, when black smoke was being made, and if they chose to collect the soot the expense of the operation would be trifling, if anything, beyond the first expense of the flue pedestal, in the end.

In large country houses the flue pedestal would warm the upper rooms or passages, and cause a more equal temperature in the building; this, together with the practicability of collecting the soot for agricultural purposes, might be an inducement to its introduction. Water could be lifted to the roof of a country mansion by that ingenious contrivance the hydraulic ram, and passed off to its original source when done with, the soot being left behind.

The beautiful self-acting machine, known as Gwynne and Co.’s improved hydraulic ram, is peculiarly adapted for raising or lifting water to any required elevation. It is necessary to have a fall of water to work it, and the greater the height of the fall, the more effective will be the machine. In favourable cases it will raise water thirty times higher than the fall working it. The greater the height of the lift, of course the less will be the quantity raised in a given time. This machine can be made to deliver comparatively large quantities of water, either in tanks on the roofs of houses, or in farmyards for filling ponds. It will work day and night without any attendance or expense after it is once fixed. Two or more rams may be used to force through the same pipe, or rising main. Where a continuous stream of water to work the machine cannot be obtained, a spring, or even rainfall, or drainage may be stored up in a reservoir or dam, and made to work the ram.

The expense of these machines is not excessive, as the following table will show:—

A small room or enclosure must be erected to contain the machine.

The question of how far the removal of smoke from the atmosphere would affect the various gases of combustion floating therein is a question for the chemist. The plan that has been here proposed is founded on the supposition that Nature’s law, relative to the diffusion of gases, permits only carbonic acid gas, the chief product of combustion, to remain in the proportion of 1 in 2000. The introduction of so much water in the sewer, where its presence already is considered an injury to the sewage, is an objection, but the present system of drainage requires a plentiful supply of water, to prevent stoppages or choking. Should the dry earth system ever be generally introduced, the present sewers would serve to remove liquid sewage and all products of combustion. The operation of the sewer in any way in receiving this smoke and soot, would permit the full and cheering light of the sun to shine alike in country and town.

DESIGN No. 36.

A LECTURE HALL, OR LITERARY INSTITUTION.

THIS design was made to refront an old chapel in the country which had been purchased for the purpose of forming a Literary Institute. The interior

was one large room, the lecturer’s table at the back, a recess and fireplace behind, a large gallery in front, under which were formed two small rooms, with a

passage from the grand entrance between. The entrance-door with a bust of Socrates over it, under the arch, was made large, to give an important character to the front. A section of the niche over the doorway is given, some details of the angle rustication, together with an elevation of the entrance-door.

DESIGN No. 37.

ENCAUSTIC TILES.

now of universal use, both for floor and wall decoration, and have become general favourites for such purposes. A few suggestions, therefore, for the purpose of making them more artistic and pleasing will not be out of place.

The present patterns are almost entirely of a conventional kind, or according to strict geometric forms. The same pattern is repeated all over the surface, without variation, and however excellent the pattern may be, it is designed on the same principle as that of a printed wall paper.

The design just given puts all geometric forms aside, and introduces a free-hand treatment, allowing the pattern to be varied on every surface laid down.

The first tile shows eight points in which the stem of the pattern (suppose that of a flower design) meets in them all. The second tile shows the stem; the third and fourth the flower pattern varied. One tile might have more flowers than leaves, another all leaves or buds, and as all the tiles would fall in their right places, they depend only on the care of the workmen who place them; the pattern might be varied according to the number of tiles of different pattern.

For wall linings a trellis work might be shown on the tile, having a blue ground; some tiles might be without either leaves, stems, or flowers, and the design would show a flowered trellis against the sky. The figure given on page 461 shows this.

These tiles are beginning to be used on columns. Some good examples are to be seen in the South Kensington Museum Galleries. In columns with trellis work a white marble ground with leaves and roses twined round it naturally, would look a great deal better than formal lines of stiff ornaments.

Some of our latest Gothic architects who were at the same time artists, did not trouble themselves to draw out according to rule the geometric lines for the foliation of their Gothic windows. They knew the principles thoroughly, but merely made the vertical lines correct, and then sketched in the foliation with a free hand. This gave an outline greatly superior to the usual stiff conventional forms. Some examples of this may be seen in one of the author’s books, now in the Fine Art Library of the South Kensington Museum, in which the free-hand designs (rubbings) are placed by the side of the same patterns drawn out geometrically.

The vignette shows foreign cut-wood patterns for roof ornament; the section the method of forming the zinc gutter.

DESIGN No. 38.—RESTORATION OF CASTLE GUNNARSTROP, SWEDEN.

IT has been remarked in the Introduction, that the localities in which a residence can be placed greatly affect their picturesque appearance. The north and west Highlands of Scotland, in our own country, and a similar class of scenery in Sweden and Norway, greatly aid by their natural beauties the best effects of the architect, and generally in northern Europe, including Denmark with the above-named countries, those accessories can be largely taken advantage of. An instance of this can be found in the design now under consideration. In this castle the gables are carried up to a greater height, and made more ornamental and of greater importance than with us. In the year 1852 the author was making a design for a villa for the Count de Bark, a Swedish nobleman. It was to be erected on the heights bordering the Sound near Copenhagen, and was seen from the sea in passing, peering above the trees. The upper part of the villa was made as picturesque as possible, with a tower, battlements, and turrets. The lower part of the building was very plain, and the plan merely contained a few living rooms and servants’ apartments; it was much unlike our style, and is therefore not given here: only the view from the vignette is afforded in this description. The Count’s uncle occupied the old castle, the Vrams Gunnarstrop in Sweden, then very much out of repair and unfitted for the requirements of modern domestic life.

It was planned originally on a grand scale; the fronts had high triangular gables in steps, and decorated with cut granite ornaments, but the whole was

very plain. The north front was in two floors, and the angle towers of the building had only two floors. The portions between one storey—that of the ground floor—thus had to be raised. The ground floor was given to the servants, and the southern portion of the building was to remain for a time in its then existing state. The plan shows a, the grand staircase, adorned with columns supporting the upper landing. It was 27 ft. in length by 26 ft. in width, and led up to an ante-room b, in the centre of the building, 26 ft. in length by 12 ft. in breadth. It opened into the first and second drawing-rooms, c and d: one 30 ft. in length, the other 40 ft., and both of a width of 26 ft.

The dining-room e, entered from the chief drawing-room, was 40 ft. in length, with a width of 22 ft.; f shows the gallery or library filled with book-cases, and leading to the day-room h; the chief bedroom is shown at i adjoining, k is the lady’s dressing-room, l the gentleman’s dressing-room and bath; m is the nursery, with a servants’ staircase and closet adjoining; g is the servants’ serving-place at the entrance of dining-room. The light portions of the plan show the additions made; the black, the old portions of the castle. The two towers contained staircases to the attics which were formed in the high roofs.

The principal elevation faced the west. The perspective view of this front is given. Its length is 130 ft., and the height of the principal entrance from the ground to the top of the gable is 60 ft.

The south and west sides were of an equally picturesque character, but neither had any central gable. The south had triple dormer windows joined in the centre with one dormer window at each side. The two towers were seen rising above the roof, and a wide terrace with open stone Elizabethan balustrading extending the entire front, with steps down to the garden in the centre below. The terrace was 130 ft. in length. The west side had the two gables, one at each end, with three tall dormer windows in the roof; these were connected by wood balustrading, and a window with three lights was placed below each. The granite-stone ornaments in the old fronts were replaced in the new fronts.

The vignette gives a view of a small garden fountain, designed from one in the old garden at Blickling in Norfolk. The plinth is hexangular in plan, with the scrolls projecting on the three sides. To the top of the jet its height is about 9 feet.