151 There is no barley without a beard; it is clearly a variety of wheat that is alluded to.
152 Triticum spelta of Linnæus.
153 “Semen,” the same as zea, or spelt.
154 Siligo.
155 Ἄμυλον.
156 De Re Rust. c. 87. This “amylum” seems somewhat to resemble our starch.
157 The Hordeum distichum of Linnæus.
158 Hordeum hexastichum of Linnæus. The Hordeum vulgare, or common barley, has but four rows.
159 These varieties are not known at the present day, and Fée questions if they ever existed. There is a black barley found in Germany, the Hordeum nigrum of Willdenow.
160 A calcareous soil is the best adapted for barley.
161 Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.
162 This fallacious opinion is shared with Galen, De Facult. Anim. B. vi. c. 11.
163 Siligo.
164 Triticum.
165 The Triticum dicoccum, or spelt.
167 Semen.
168 In c. 20, also in c. 29. This grain, which was in reality a kind of spelt, received its name probably from having been the first cultivated.
169 Il. ii. c. 548: “the land that produces zea.”
170 Not ἀπὸ τοῦ ζῆν, from “living.”
171 Merely, as Fée says, from the faulty method employed in its preparation, as starch has, in all cases, the same physical appearance.
172 In c. 17 of this Book.
173 In c. 3 of this Book.
174 “Puls,” like our porridge.
175 Any food that was originally eaten with “puls,” and afterwards with bread, was so called, such as meat, vegetables, &c.
176 “Offam.” This word, which in the later writers signifies a “cake,” originally meant a hardened lump of porridge.
177 Pulte fritillâ.
178 “Siligo.” There are numerous contradictions in Pliny with reference to this plant, but it is now pretty generally agreed that it is the Triticum hibernum of Linnæus: the “froment tousselle” of the French. It was formerly the more general opinion that it was identical with spelt; but that cannot be the case, as spelt is red, and siligo is described as white.
179 “Sine virtute.” It is doubtful what is the meaning of this.
180 Sine pondere.
181 In other places he says, most unaccountably, that wheat “degenerates into siligo.”
183 “Quam vocant castratam.”
184 From this account, it would appear that there were twenty-four sextarii to the modius; but the account in general is very contradictory.
185 Salt water is rarely used for this purpose in modern times. See this passage discussed in Beckmann on Inventions, Bohn’s Ed. vol. i. p. 164.
187 Without tin, probably; or the tin bread may have been baked before the fire, similar to the method adopted at the present day with the American ovens.
188 “Similago.” Founders still use meal occasionally for making moulds; it is also employed in making paper.
189 The mention of “hundreds” here is evidently faulty, unless the other part of the passage is corrupt. Fée suggests twenty-two and twenty-seven.
190 But above we find him stating that “secundarius,” “seconds” flour, and “cibarius,” or “coarse,” meal, are the same thing. His contradictions cannot apparently be reconciled.
191 The whole of this passage, as Brotier remarks, is evidently corrupt.
192 Fée has no doubt that this was siligo, or winter-wheat, in a very high state of cultivation.
193 Il. v. l. 195.
194 There are still some varieties both of winter-wheat and spelt that have the beard.
195 It is generally thought that this is the oat, the Avena sativa of Linnæus, while some have suggested rice. Fée thinks that by the name, some exotic gramineous plant is meant.
196 Probably a variety of spelt, as Sprengel conjectures, from Galen and other writers. See c. 16 of this Book.
197 Fée thinks that it is the grain of the Festuca fluitans of Linnæus that is here alluded to, and identifies it with the “ulva palustris” of Virgil, Geor. iii. 174.
198 The Latin word “degener” cannot here mean “degenerate,” in our sense of the word, but must merely imply a change of nature in the plant.
199 See B. xvii. c. 3.
200 We know of no such fruitfulness as this in the wheat of Europe. Fifteen-fold, as Fée remarks, is the utmost amount of produce that can be anticipated.
201 Fée mentions instances of 150, 92, and 63 stalks arising from a single grain; but all these fall far short of the marvels here mentioned by Pliny.
202 The Triticum compositum of Linnæus; supposed to have originally come from Egypt or Barbary.
203 “Centigranium.” Probably the same as the last.
204 In c. 10 of this Book.
206 Pinguius.
207 Already mentioned in c. 10.
209 This would rather grate the grain than pound it, as Beckmann observes. See his Hist. Inv., vol. i. pp. 147 and 164, Bohn’s Ed., where the meaning of this passage has been commented upon. Gesner, also, in his Lexicon Rusticum, has endeavoured to explain it.
210 Ruido.
211 It is surprising to find the Romans, not only kneading their bread with sea-water, but putting in it pounded bricks, chalk, and sand!
212 Beard chaff; so called, probably, from the sharpness of the points, like needles (acus).
213 See B. xxxiii. c. 3; where he says, that a fire lighted with this chaff, fuses gold more speedily than one made with maple wood.
214 The Tartars still employ millet as one of their principal articles of food. They also extract a kind of wine from it.
215 Virgil alludes to this, Georg. iii. 463.
216 Panic is still employed more than any other grain in the south of France.
217 Or grape-juice. This must have tended to affect the taste of the bread.
218 Ervum.
220 This remark is founded upon just notions.
221 Ostrearius.
222 From ἄρτος, and λάγανον, bread and cake.
223 From σπεύδω, to hasten. A sort of crumpet, probably.
224 Furnaceus.
225 Artopticeus.
226 “Clibanis.” The clibanus was a portable oven or mould, broader at the bottom than the top.
227 Aquaticus.
229 It would appear to be somewhat similar to our rusks.
230 Which ended A.U.C. 586.
231 A. ii. s. 9, l. 4. “Ego hinc artoptam ex proxumo utendam peto.” It is thought by some commentators, that the word used by Pliny here was, in reality, “Artoptasia,” a female baker; and that he alludes to a passage in the Aulularia, which has now perished.
232 Which in Pliny’s time signified “baker.”
233 The Stipa tenacissima of Linnæus, Fée says; or else the Lygeum spartum of Linnæus.
235 Or perfumed oils.
236 See B. iii. c. 9. A volcanic district.
237 In c. 20 of this Book.
238 Grain from which the husk is removed.
239 A sub-carbonate of lime; it is still known in those parts of Campania, and is called “lumera.”
240 Teneritatem.
241 From the Greek, meaning “white earth.”
242 Fée enquires, and with good reason, how the African mixture accommodated itself to the stomachs of those who ate it.
243 Residue.
244 Seconds.
245 Sieve flour.
246 A porridge or pap, made of ground grain. It is mentioned by Cato, c. 86.
247 The Faba vulgaris of the modern naturalists. It is supposed to have originally come from Persia.
248 It is said that this mixture is still employed in the Valais and in Savoy.
249 Fabata.
250 Beans were used in ancient times, in place of balls or pebbles, in voting by ballot. Hence it has been suggested that Pythagoras, in recommending his disciples to abstain from beans, meant to advise them to have nothing to do with politics.
251 The sacrifices offered to the Manes or spirits of deceased relations. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. ii. l. 565.
252 “Brought home.” The bean was offered up, to ensure good luck.
253 Didymus, in the Geoponica, B. ii. c. 33, repeats this absurdity.
254 Georg. i. 215.
255 This notion still prevails, and the bean, while in blossom, is dug into the ground to manure it, both in England and France.
256 It does not appear, however, that this was done with the view of digging in the beans.
257 Or Bean Islands. See B. iv. c. 27.
258 The Nymphæa nelumbo of Linnæus is alluded to, but it is no longer to be found in Egypt. Pliny is supposed to derive this from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 10, but his translation is not exactly correct.
259 Pisum sativum of Linnæus.
260 Meaning a wart or pimple on the face.
261 Cicer arietinum of the botanists.
262 “Gigni cum salsilagine.” It abounds in India, and while blossoming, it distils a corrosive acid, which corrodes the shoes of those who tread upon it.
263 There are still the red and the white kinds, the large and the small.
264 Cicercula: the Lathyrus sativus of Linnæus. It is difficult to cook and hard of digestion. See c. 26.
265 This must be said in reference to some of the pease when in a dried state.
266 A variety of the Phaseolus vulgaris of Linnæus: the “haricot” of the French. The French bean and the scarlet-runner are cooked in a similar manner among us.
267 15th of October.
268 1st of November.
269 The Napo-brassica of Linnæus. The turnip cabbage, or rape-colewort.
270 This taste, it is most probable, is nowhere in existence at the present day.
271 This is not by any means an exaggeration.
272 Acrimonia.
273 These coloured varieties, Fée says, belong rather to the Brassica oleracea, than to the Brassica rapa. It is not improbable, from the structure of this passage, that Pliny means to say that the colours are artificially produced.
274 In reality, belonging to the Crucifera, the rape is hermaphroditical.
275 Wild horse-radish, which is divided into two varieties, the Raphanus raphanistrum of Linnæus, and the Cochlearia Armoracia, may possibly be meant, but their roots bear no resemblance to the radish.
276 An enormous price, apparently.
277 The Brassica napus of Linnæus.
278 1st of March.
279 The Neptunalia and the Vulcanalia; 23rd of July and 23rd of August.
280 In consequence of the brittleness of the pod.
281 This is an exaggeration of certain phænomena observed in the leaves of all leguminous plants.
282 In B. xvii. c. 6.
283 “Ex areâ.” This reading is favoured by the text of Columella. B. ii. c. 10, who says the same. But “ex arvo,” from the field, i. e. the “moment it is gathered”—seems preferable, as being more consistent with the context,
284 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 1. 11, &c.
285 It is still thought that the lupine enriches the soil in which it grows.
286 Marcellus Empiricus says, that boiled lupine meal, spread as a plaster, and laid on the abdomen, will destroy intestinal worms.
287 Vicia sativa of Linnæus.
288 Or orobus, the Ervum ervilia of Linnæus.
289 It is thought by many that the ervum is unwholesome, being productive of muscular weakness. The blade of it is said to act as a poison on pigs. However, we find the farina, or meal, extolled by some persons for its medicinal qualities; and if we are to trust to the advertisements in the newspapers, it is rising rapidly in esteem. See B. xxii. c. 73.
290 From Columella, B. ii. c. 11.
291 Trigonella fœnum Græcum of Linnæus.
292 “Scarificatio.”
293 Probably the Secale cereale of Linnæus, cultivated rye.
294 It is now held in high esteem in many parts of Europe.
295 Rye has no bitterness, and this assertion has led some to doubt if it is identical with the “secale” of Pliny.
296 Perhaps identical with the Vicia cracca of Linnæus.
297 In c. 54 and 60, and elsewhere. See B. xvii. c. 35.
298 Probably, fitches.
299 Fée suggests that this may be the Avena sterilis, or else the Avena fatua of Linnæus.
300 De Re Rust. B. i. c. 31.
301 “Medica,” in Latin, a kind of clover, the Medicago sativa of Linnæus.
302 Fée is inclined to doubt this.
303 Pliny exaggerates here: Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says, only “ten:” a field, however, sown with it will last, with a fresh sowing, as long as twenty years.