The vacant duchies of the Guelfs were disposed of on conditions that mark an epoch in the territorial development of Germany. Saxony, the last stronghold of the sentiment of the ancient four peoples of Germany, now underwent the same fate that had fallen to Bavaria earlier in Frederick’s reign. The western parts, including the vast dioceses of Cologne and Paderborn, were erected into the new duchy of Westphalia, and granted to the Archbishop of Cologne, Frederick’s ally. The lands between the Weser and the Elbe went to the chief of the lay enemies of the Guelfic house. Bernard of Anhalt, the son of Albert the Bear, received this district, along with the ducal title, but only on condition that the counties and bishoprics that in Henry the Lion’s days had been directly dependent on the Saxon duke, should henceforward hold immediately of the Empire. In the south the aged Welf VI. had quite withdrawn from politics, and Otto of Wittelsbach, Count-Palatine of Bavaria, the strenuous upholder of Frederick’s policy in Italy, was before long invested with the duchy of Bavaria, over which his descendants still bear rule. The fall of the Guelfs, the one family strong enough to rival the throne, compensated in some measure for Frederick’s failures in Italy. By the partition of Saxony and Bavaria, the last danger to the monarchy from the national duchies was removed. |Diet of Mainz, 1184.| In the great Diet of Mainz, held in 1184, the glories of the Diet of Besançon were renewed, after which the Emperor went over the Alps for his sixth and last visit to Italy. So strong did Frederick still feel himself, that he yielded to the importunities of Henry of England, and allowed Henry the Lion to return to Germany.

Misfortunes followed Frederick’s fresh intervention in Italy. On his way he concluded, at Augsburg, a treaty (October 1184), which ranks as the greatest of his diplomatic triumphs. In 1169 his eldest son, Henry, had been crowned King of the Romans at Aachen, when still a child. He was now becoming his father’s active fellow-worker. By the Treaty of Augsburg it was arranged that the young king should marry Constance of Sicily, the daughter of King Roger, and the aunt and heiress of the childless William II. From this sprang the ultimate union of the Hohenstaufen with the Sicilian royal house, and the conversion of southern Italy, hitherto the chiefest strength of the papal power, into the strongest bulwark of the Swabian Empire. Nor was this Frederick’s only success in Italy. |Revival of Frederick’s power in Italy.| The league of northern cities had broken asunder after the fear of his strong hand was removed. In 1181 the former imperialist towns—Cremona, Pavia, Lodi, Bergamo, Como—separated themselves from the confederation, and formed a league, bitterly opposed to Milan and her allies. Frederick also took advantage of the feuds of Tuscany and Bologna to build up a party there, and by lavish grants to Pisa and Lucca he secured, though at vast cost, powerful friends in middle Italy.

The Papacy had lost the great man who had so long upheld its fortunes. Alexander III.’s last important act was the assembling, in March 1179, of the third General Council of the Lateran, where the law was promulgated that a valid election to the Papacy required the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals present in the conclave. He died on 30th August 1181, full of years and honours. His five immediate successors did not reign long enough to make any real mark, and were much hampered by their strife with the Romans. Lucius III. (1181–1185) the first of the series, was still Pope when Frederick paid his sixth visit to Italy. |Lucius III., 1181–1185.| In November 1184 Pope and Emperor met at Verona, where Lucius refused to consent to Frederick’s proposal that his son, the young King Henry, should be crowned Emperor during his own lifetime. Under Urban III. (1185–1187), Lucius’ successor, a new quarrel between Pope and Emperor seemed imminent. |Urban III., 1185–1187.| The immediate pretext of this was a double election to the Archbishopric of Trier, where the imperialist choice of Rudolf of Wied had been opposed by the appointment of the ambitious Archdeacon Folmar by the hierarchical party. Urban III. consecrated Folmar archbishop, and a powerful coalition against Frederick was formed, including besides Folmar, Philip, Archbishop of Cologne, and Henry the Lion, but recently back to his German estates, whose father-in-law, Henry of England, and son-in-law, Canute VI. of Denmark, promised their assistance. |Threatened renewal of quarrel between Empire and Papacy.| But Frederick had still the upper hand, and his ancient enemies in Italy and Germany were now foremost in supporting him. While Cremona joined the Pope, Milan concluded a close alliance with the Emperor, and the marriage of King Henry and Constance was celebrated within the walls of the once rebellious city. After the marriage, a threefold coronation ceremony took place, in which Frederick received the crown of Burgundy, Henry that of Italy, and Constance the queen’s crown of Germany. Henceforth the ancient title of Cæsar was revived in Henry’s favour, in the same sense as that in which Diocletian had designated the Cæsar to be the assistant and successor of the imperial Augustus. In Italy the young Henry devastated the lands of the Papalists. In Germany, where the bishops supported Frederick, Philip of Cologne, abandoned by his English allies, was utterly defeated. Urban persisted in his opposition, and was preparing to excommunicate the Emperor, when the fatal news of the collapse of the Christian power in the East came as a thunderclap. |Gregory VIII., 1187.| A few days later Urban died (20th October 1187), and his successor Gregory VIII. (October-December 1187) strove to unite Europe in a new Crusade, and dying after a few weeks, the next Pope, Clement III. (1187–1191) removed the chief cause of the dispute by depriving Folmar of his archbishopric, and by promising to crown Henry. |Clement III., 1187–1191.| Henry the Lion atoned for his new treason by a new exile. The younger son of Frederick, Frederick, now received the duchy of Swabia, in succession to Frederick of Rothenburg. Peace was thoroughly restored, and the power of the Emperor established on a firmer basis than ever. In Italy order was again secured. Since the death of Alexander III., the Popes had mainly lived in northern Italy, but in 1188 Clement III. was restored to Rome. His successor Celestine III. (1191–1198) lived peacefully in the capital, but the Senate still ruled Rome and not the Pope.

Once more master of Germany and Italy, the old Emperor showed his imperial position in its most ideal aspect by putting himself at the head of a great European movement. In 1187 Saladin conquered Jerusalem from the Christians, and a mighty crusading impulse ran for a third time throughout Europe. At Easter 1188, Frederick once more took the Cross, and leaving the Cæsar Henry as regent, left Germany in May 1189. In June 1190 he perished in Cilicia, without having ever reached his goal.

Ragewin, the biographer of Frederick, minutely describes his person and character. His stature was not above the middle height, but his frame was elegant and well proportioned. Flowing yellow hair curled over his brow and almost concealed his ears, and his close-cropped reddish beard gave him his familiar surname of Barbarossa. His eyes were clear and bright, his nose well shaped, and his whole countenance joyous and merry. His throat and neck were somewhat thick. His milk-white skin easily reddened, not through anger but from modesty. His gait was firm and regular, and his habit of body vigorous. His voice was clear and full. He enjoyed excellent health but for chronic attacks of fever. He was chaste, honourable, just and religious. He was assiduous at divine worship, devout in his behaviour in church, and very respectful to the clergy, regularly putting aside a tenth of his income for pious and charitable objects. A mighty warrior, he only rejoiced in battle because victory was the best means of assuring peace. He was zealous in his attention to public business, and kept in his hands the whole strings of his policy. He delighted in hunting, and was able to lay aside his royal state in hours of recreation without loss of dignity. He was fond of reading history, especially the story of his great predecessors in the Empire. Speaking eloquently in German, he could understand Latin better than he could talk it. Simple but never negligent in his personal habits, he wore the ordinary German dress. He spent much money on buildings, especially in restoring ancient palaces in Germany and Italy. His greatest ambition was to restore the Roman Empire to its pristine glory. During his reign both Germany and Italy enjoyed a prosperity and peace to which they had long been strangers. Agriculture flourished: commerce took a mighty impetus: the towns became wealthy and self-governing, and secured for themselves as strong a position as the barons and bishops within the political system of feudalism. A German national literature attested the growth of German national consciousness. The Niebelungenlied took its modern form, and its heroes, by their strange medley of chivalry and violence, well represent the ideals of the age. The Minnesinger began their songs, and the rhymed Kaisercronik brought home to all the mighty deeds of former Emperors. In later times, when the seeds of disunion sown by the great Emperor’s policy had brought forth their fruits, men looked back to the age of Barbarossa with admiration and longing. A strange legend ultimately grew that Frederick was not dead but sleeping, and that in due time he would again appear to restore peace and justice, and again realise in his own person the Kingdom of God on earth.