Notes.

LESSON II
Demonstrative, and Personal Pronouns.

The definite article the is not expressed directly in Chinese, but the demonstrative pronoun takes its place.

The demonstrative pronouns are:

This or these, di° kuh 第個. That or those, i-kuh 伊個.

The demonstrative pronouns change their forms with different nouns, being formed by the di° (第) or i (伊) and the classifier belonging to the noun. Thus “this table” is not di°-kuh de-°ts but di°-tsak de-°ts (第隻檯子).

When the demonstrative is used with a numeral it retains the form di°-kuh (第個) or i-kuh (伊個) and the classifier of the noun comes between the numeral and the noun. Thus “this one table” is di°-kuh ih tsak de-°ts (第個一隻檯子).

The personal pronouns are as follows:

SINGULAR NUMBER

Nominative and Objective Possessive
I. Person: I or me, °ngoo 我. I. Person: My or mine, °ngoo-kuh 我個.
II. Person: Thou, thee or you, noong° 儂. II. Person: Thy, thine or yours, noong°-kuh 儂個.
III. Person: He, she, it, him, her, yi 伊. III. Person: His, hers, its, i-kuh 伊個.

PLURAL NUMBER

Nominative and Objective Possessive
I. Person: We, or us, nyi° or °ngoo-nyi° 我伲. I. Person: Ours, nyi°-kuh or °ngoo-nyi°-kuh 伲個, 我伲個.
II. Person: You or ye, na° 㑚 II. Person: Your, or yours, na°-kuh 㑚個.
III. Person: They or them, yi-la 伊拉. III. Person: Their, or theirs, yi-la-kuh 伊拉個.

The use of kuh (個) in the possessive case must be noted. Kuh (個) serves to form the possessive case of nouns as it does of pronouns. Thus to say “a man’s table” would be ih kuh nyung kuh de-°ts (一個人個檯子). Exercises in possessive case formation will be found in this lesson.

VOCABULARY

°Po (把) is the classifier used with tools, instruments or articles grasped in the hand.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON III
The Numerals up to one Hundred

From ten to twenty the numerals are formed by adding the digits after ten.

The intervening numbers between twenty and thirty, etc., are formed regularly by adding the digits to the decimals. Thus twenty-one is nyan°-ih. Thirty-one, is san-seh-ih, etc.

Thirty-five is pronounced san-°so-°ng.

In using the numeral with the noun, the classifier of the noun is introduced between the numeral and the noun. Thus “Four men” is s° kuh nyung (四個人) not s° nyung. “Six chairs” is lok tsak iui°-°ts (六隻椅子) not lok iui°-°ts.

In speaking of a thing well understood the noun is often omitted, and we have simply the numeral with the classifier, as lok kuh, tshih tsak, etc.

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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Note.

‘Ah-°ts is a small box in distinction from Siang-°ts, a large box, but as will be seen later the adjectives for large and small may also be used with both of these words.

LESSON IV
Adjectives

Certain words in Chinese are distinctly used as adjectives, but many other words, such as nouns, verbs and adverbs may be used to qualify nouns. In the expression dok su-nyung (讀書人), meaning “a scholar,” we have the verb dok (讀), “to read,” and the noun su (書), “book,” qualifying nyung (人) “man;” the whole expression being literally “the reading-book-man.”

Adjectives may be compared as follows: °tien (點) is added after the adjective to make the comparative degree, and °ting (頂) is placed before the adjective to form the superlative degree. Thus, Positive Degree, “Good,” is °hau (好). Comparative Degree, “Better,” is °hau °tien (好點). Superlative Degree, “Best,” is °ting °hau (頂好).

There are, however, many other ways of expressing the Superlative. Thus we may have °hau-le-°si (好來死), which is literally “good-come death” that is, “good to the death.” This is a very frequent expression.

We have also tsoe °hau (最好) or juh °hau (極好). Very good is usually ’man °hau (蠻好). °Hau-tuh-juh (好得極) means superlatively good.

The adjective °hau (好) has a very wide use. Everything that is good, suitable, correct, or proper, may be said to be °hau (好).

VOCABULARY

°Pung (本) is the classifier for book.

Diau (條) is the classifier with long, winding or limber objects.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON V
Interrogatives, and Negatives

Va° (否) is used as the sign of a direct question, expecting the answer “yes” or “no.” It is added at the end of the sentence. Thus di°-kuh °z noong° kuh va°? (第個是儂個否) means, “is this yours?” Di°-kuh °hau va°? (第個好否) means, “is this good?” (the verb °z being omitted). The Chinese do not use a rising inflection of the voice to indicate that a question is being asked.

Meh (末) is used for asking a question when the action is presumed to have been completed. Thus van° chuh meh? (飯吃末) means, “have you eaten your rice?” or “have you dined?” Sien-sang chi° meh? (先生去末) means, “has the teacher gone?”

Nyi (呢) is used for asking a question implying the alternative. Thus noong° chi° nyi ’veh chi°? (儂去呢勿去) means, “are you going or not going?” noong° le nyi ’veh le? (儂來呢勿來) means, “are you coming or not coming?”

Nyi (呢) is also used in a question expecting a negative answer, but the explanation of this must be reserved until later.

“Who” is sa° (啥). In this sense it is always joined to the noun nyung (人). Thus sa° nyung? (啥人) means, “who?” Pidgin English, “who man?”

Sa° (啥) is also used in the sense of “what.” It sometimes precedes the noun as sa° sang-i°? (啥生意). “what business?” In a sentence like “what do you want,” it follows the verb. Thus noong° iau° sa° (儂要啥). Literally, “you want what?”

Sa° is also used with va° in the sense of “any,” in asking a question, Thus noong° iau° sa° va°? (儂要啥否) means, “do you want anything?” °Yeu sa° nyung iau° chi° va°? (有啥人要去否) means, “does any one wish to go?” Noong° °yeu sa° doong-dien va°? (儂有啥銅錢否) means, “have you any cash?”

Which is °‘a-°li (那裏). It is always used with numeral and classifier. Thus °‘a-°li ih kuh nyung? (那裏一個人) means, “which man?” °‘A-°li ih diau loo°? (那裏一條路) means, “which road?” °‘A-°li ih °pung su? (那裏一本書 ) means, “which book?” °‘A-°li °liang °po tau? (那裏兩把刀) means, “which two knives?” When the subject is understood about which you are conversing, the noun may be omitted, and °‘a-°li with the numeral and the classifier are sufficient. Thus in speaking of roads °‘a-°li ih diao? would be enough.

“No” or “not”, is expressed by ’veh (勿). Thus yi ’veh iau° chi° (伊勿要去) means, “he does not wish to go.”

M-meh (無末) is used in the sense of “not any” in answering a question asking whether you have any, thus noong° °yeu sa° yang-dien va°? (儂有啥洋錢否) “have you any dollars?”, the answer might be m-meh.

Sometimes m-sa° (無啥) is used in answering questions in the negative. Thus noong° °yeu sa° tsoo° va°? (儂有啥做否) “have you anything to do?” (Have you any employment?) The answer might be m-sa° tsoo° (無啥做) “not anything to do.”

No one is m-sa°-nyung (無啥人). Thus °yeu sa° nyung le va°? (有啥人來否), “has any one come?” The answer might be m-sa° nyung (無啥人).

VOCABULARY

Kung (根) Is the classifier denoting objects long and generally stiff.

Zoo° (座) is the classifier for hills and buildings.

Sen° (扇) is the classifier for broad objects.

EXERCISES

(Translated into English)

(Translated into Chinese)

Notes.

LESSON VI
Some Remarks on the Verb

In a monosyllabic language like the Chinese the words themselves are never inflected, and therefore the Moods and Tenses of the Verbs are formed by the addition of auxiliary words to mark the change of meaning.

We will take the verb chuh (吃) to illustrate.

INDICATIVE MOOD

The only change for the different persons is the above will be in the use of the pronouns of the different persons.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

PARTICIPLES

A few words of explanation are necessary. The use of leh-°li and leh-la° are a little difficult to understand at first. As stated °ngoo leh-°li chuh (我拉裏吃) means, “I am eating.” If, however, a third person asked your servant Sien-sang van° chuh meh? (先生飯吃 末), “Has the Teacher eaten his rice?”, the servant would answer, if you were still eating, yi leh-la° chuh (伊拉拉吃) meaning “he is eating.” If you yourself said °ngoo leh-la° chuh, it would mean, “I was eating.” In the Perfect Tense the word koo° (過) means literally ”to pass over.” In the Past Perfect the words °i-kyung (已經) mean “already.”

The real force of leh-°li (拉裏) is “here,” and the real force of leh-la° (拉拉) is “there.”

There are a great many ways of expressing completed action in Chinese. These will be explained later. In this lesson one of the most common will be explained. It is by the use of the adjective °hau after the verb. Thus chuh °hau tse (吃好哉) means, “I have finished eating.” Dok °hau tse (讀好哉) means, “I have finished reading.”

°Hau (好), “good,” is also used before the verb to qualify it. Thus we have the expressions °hau chuh kuh (好吃個) meaning “good to eat.” °Hau dok kuh (好讀個), “Easy to read.” °Hau tsoo° kuh (好做個), “Easy to do,” etc.

VOCABULARY

Jien° is the classifier denoting garments, pieces of baggage and merchandize, and also an affair.

Saung (雙) is the classifier denoting pairs.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON VII
Prepositions and Postpositions, and Common Connectives

The words expressing the relations of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some of them after the governed substantive. ‘At’ or ‘to’ is expressed by la° (拉). Thus °ngoo peh la° yi (我撥拉伊), “I gave it to him.”

‘To’ or ‘towards’ in the sense of direction is expressed by tau° (到). Thus: °ngoo iau° tau° °Zaung-°he chi° (我要到上海去), “I wish to go to Shanghai.” ‘To’ or ‘towards’ is also expressed by te° (對), as in the expression to speak to a person. Thus: °ngoo te° yi wo° (我對伊話), “I said to him.” ‘From’ is expressed by dzoong (從). Thus: °ngoo dzoong °Zaung-°he le (我從上海來), “I came from Shanghai.”

‘With’ is expressed by tah 搭 or doong 同. Thus: °ngoo tah yi bak wo° (我搭伊白話) or °ngoo doong yi bak wo° (我同伊白話), “I talked with him.”

‘Instead of’ is thi° (替) or °de thi° (代替). Thus: °ngoo °de thi° yi tsoo° (我代替伊做), “I do it instead of him.” The idea of doing it for a person is expressed by theh (忒). Thus: °ngoo theh yi tsoo° (我忒伊做), “I will do it for him.”

‘In’ is expressed by placing la° (拉) or leh-la° (拉拉) before the noun and °li (裏) or °li-hyang° (裏向) after the noun. Thus: la° vaung-°ts °li (拉房子裏) means, “In the house.” La° siang-°ts °li (拉箱子裏) means “In the box.”

‘On’ is expressed by placing la° or leh-la° before the noun and laung° (上) after it. Thus: la° loo° laung° (拉路上) means, “On the road.” La° de-°ts laung° (拉擡子上) means, “On the table.”

Nga° (外) means “out.” The usual expression is nga°-deu (外頭) “outside.” It follows the noun.

Other prepositions will be introduced later.

The most common connective is °lau (佬) and corresponds quite closely to our use of “and.” Thus °ngoo iau° °ma ‘a-°ts °lau mah (我要買鞋子佬襪) means, “I wish to buy shoes and stockings.” Nouns are often placed beside one another without any connective between them. Tah-ts (搭之) is used much in the same sense as °lau (佬).

‘Also’ is °‘a-°z (也是) or °‘a (也). Thus: di°-kuh °‘a-°z hau kuh (第個也是好個) means, “This also is good.” °Ngoo °‘a iau° °ma (我也要買) means, “I also wish to buy.” °Ngoo wan iau° °ma (我還要買) means, “I still wish to buy.”

VOCABULARY

EXERCISES

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