Notes.

LESSON XIII
Auxiliary Verbs

The verb °chi (起) is often used as an auxiliary verb after the principal verb to express the idea of inception. Thus dok-°chi (讀起) means “Begin to read.” °Chi also expresses the idea of erectness, but when used in this sense, le (來) follows the °chi. Thus Lih-°chi-le (立起來) means “Stand up.” Lok-°chi-le (䟿起來) means “Get up.” It also has a progressive meaning, as when you say Doh-°chi-le (讀起來) it means “read on,” “go on reading.”

We have the °chi, also used in combination with tuh (得). Thus Lok-tuh-°chi (䟿得起) means “Able to get up.” Lok-’veh-°chi (䟿勿起) means “Unable to get up.” °Ma-tuh-°chi (買得起) means “Can afford to buy it.” °Ma-’veh-°chi (買勿起) means “Cannot afford to buy it.” Kwhung°-’veh-°chi (睏勿起) means “unable to sleep.” Khoen°-’veh-°chi (看勿起) means “to look down upon,” “to disdain.”

°Zaung (上) and °‘Au (下) are used both as principal verbs and as auxiliaries. Thus we have the expressions °Zaung san (上山), meaning “to go up hill.” °‘Au san (下山), “to go down hill.” °‘Au zen (下船), “to go on board a boat,” °Zaung su (上書), “to take an advanced lesson in a book,” etc. In these cases they are used as principal verbs.

As auxiliary verbs, they express motion upwards and motion downwards.

They are not confined to verbs of motion, but are used freely with other verbs. To both of them le (來) and chi° (去) are frequently added.

Thus we have dok-°‘au-chi° (讀下去), meaning “Read on down.” Tsoo°-°‘au-chi° (做下去), meaning “Go on doing it.” Thiau°-°‘au-le (跳下來), meaning “Jump down.” Thiau°-°zaung-chi° (跳上去), meaning “Jump up to that place.” Thiau°-°zaung-le (跳上來) “Jump up to this place.”

Although the Chinese language is, strictly speaking, a monosyllabic language, yet as has already been noticed there is a strong tendency to use two or more words together forming as it were disyllables or trisyllables. In this lesson some verbs are used, composed of two characters occurring together.

VOCABULARY

Ban (爿) is the Classifier for firms, shops, etc.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON XIV
Causality, and Necessity

The idea of causality, in the sense of causing a person to do a thing, is expressed in Chinese by the use of the auxiliary verbs kau (敎) and tsha (差). Thus “I caused him to do it,” would be °ngoo kao yi tsoo° (我敎伊做). “I caused him to go,” would be °ngoo tsha yi chi (我差伊去). The word tsha literally means “to send.” The word kau is the same as kyau°, but used with different pronunciation and different tone. When one of higher rank causes a person of lower rank to do a thing the word s° (使) is used. Thus S° °ngoo ieu-mung, “Caused me to sorrow.”

“Must” is expressed by the expressions tsoong-iau° (總要), pih-ding° iau° (必定要), ih-ding° iau° (一定要).

“It must be” is tsoong °z (總是). Thus “It must be so” is tsoong-°z zeh-ke° (總是實蓋).

“Ought” implying obligation, is expressed by iung-ke (應該). Thus “You ought to do it” is noong° iung-ke tsoo° kuh (儂應該做個).

VOCABULARY

Foong (封) is the classifier used for letters and other sealed parcels.

Tsang (張) is the classifier denoting sheets.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON XV
Further Remarks on Numerals, the Relative Pronoun

Numbers above one hundred are expressed as follows: One hundred and one, is ih pak ling ih, and so on to ih pak ling °kyeu; then the ling is dropped, and we have ih pah zeh (一百十), ih pak zeh ih, ih pak zeh nyi°, ih pak zeh san, etc. Ling really means “in addition.”

The hundreds are expressed simply by nyi pak (二百), “two hundred,” san pak (三百), “three hundred,” etc. “One thousand” is ih tshien (一千). In expressing “one hundred and one,” we say ih pak ling ih (一百零一). In expressing “one thousand and one,” we say ih tshien ling ling ih.

“Ten thousand” is ih man° (一萬). “One million” is ih pak man° (一百萬). The ordinal numerals are expressed in Chinese by prefixing di° (第) before the cardinal. Thus “the first” is di° ih (第一) or deu-ih (頭一), “the second” di° nyi° (第二), and so forth.

°Soo 所 (lit. a place) is often used as a relative pronoun. It translates the English “who,” “which,” “what,” “that,” and “the things which.” The clause it introduces usually comes before the subject of the sentence. Thus “All which you do, I am able to do also,” would be noong° °soo tsoo° kuh z°-°thi °ngoo °‘a nung-keu° tsoo° kuh. As has already been pointed out kuh often has the force of the relative.

VOCABULARY.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON XVI
Verbal Idioms

The idea of there being time to accomplish a thing is expressed by adding the words tuh-ji° (得及) after the principal verb. If there is not sufficient time to do a thing you add ’veh-ji° (勿及) after the principal verb. Thus, Tsoo°-tuh-ji° (做得及) means “there is time to do a thing.” Tsoo°-’veh-ji° (做勿及) means “there is not time.”

This expression is used most frequently with the verb le (來). Le-tuh-ji means “there is time,” and le-’veh-ji means “there is not time.”

The idea of a thing being important is expressed by the words iau°-°kyung kuh (要緊個). “Not being important,” by the words ’veh iau° °kyung (勿要緊), or ’veh nge° sa° (勿礙啥). “Is it important?” or “Does it make any difference?” would be nge° sa° va° (礙啥否).

’Veh lauh is often used after verbs giving the idea of inability to do a thing. Thus Chuh ’veh lauh (吃勿落) means “unable to eat.” °Zoo ’veh lauh (坐勿落) “Unable to sit because of lack of room.” We also have the affirmative forms °zoo tuh lauh (坐得落) and chuh tuh lauh (吃得落).

VOCABULARY

°Kwen (管) is the classifier for tubular things.

EXERCISES

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Notes.

LESSON XVII
More Verbal Idioms

In asking questions °yeu tuh? (有得) sometimes precedes a verb with the sense, “is there to be had?” Thus °Yeu-tuh °ma va°? (有得買否) means, “Is there to be bought?” °Yeu-tuh chuh va°? (有得吃否) means, “Is there anything to eat?” The answers to these questions would be °yeu-tuh °ma kuh (有得買個), °yeu tuh chuh kuh (有得吃個), “It can be bought.” “There is something to eat.”

’Veh pih (勿必) means “It is not necessary.” Thus ’Veh pih khok (勿必哭), “It is not necessary to cry.” ’Veh pih chi° (勿必去), “It is not necessary to go.”

Ih ngan ’veh (一顏勿) before the verbs means, “Not at all.” Thus °Ngoo ih ngan ’veh °hyau-tuh (我一顏勿曉得) means, “I do not know at all.” Ih ngan ’veh zung khoen°-kyien° hyih (一顏勿曾看見歇) means, “I have not seen it at all.” Ih ngan ’veh iau° khoen° (一顏勿要看) means, “I do not want to see it at all.”

VOCABULARY

Fok (幅) is the classifier of paintings or engravings.

EXERCISES

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