The engine is the next unit attached to the frame. In placing the engine a hoist is used and no heavy lifting is required. The engine is lowered into place and securely bolted. The propeller shaft also is attached and necessary connections are made. Usually the engine has had the carburetor, ignition system, and starting and lighting equipment attached to it in the engine department. For this operation men do not need to be mechanics. A workman must be able to handle hand tools such as wrenches, screw drivers, and hammers, should have strength enough to help place the engine, and should be able to move about freely. This work is all done standing and moving about. All work of this nature is passed upon by an inspector.
The next operation is mounting and bolting the radiator into place, and connecting the water hoses to the engine. This operation is one that requires sufficient strength to lift the radiator into place, and is usually taken care of by one man. He also must be able to handle hand tools.
The steering gear is next secured to the frame, an operation which is usually taken care of by one man with possibly some little assistance by a helper. The operation requires a man who can lift the gear and put it into place. It is rather an awkward piece to handle and the employee should be physically able to handle it.
The next operation is mounting front wheels and bearings. This requires a little more skill and care than some of the other operations that have been mentioned. The mechanic must clean and lubricate the wheel bearings and mount and adjust the wheels, which must be neither too loose nor too tight. He must also secure his adjustment by means of the locking devices furnished. If he is a careless mechanic he may leave something undone, thereby endangering the lives of users of the car after it leaves the factory.
The man who looks after this operation must be capable of lifting the wheels into place and adjusting them. The operation calls for a man with a normal body, although minor defects would not prevent him from doing the work efficiently.
The rear wheels require practically the same attention that the front wheels do. However, this operation may vary with the particular type of rear-axle construction.
The next operation is lowering into place and securely bolting the dash and instrument board. This is commonly taken care of by two men, whose requirements are the same as for axle, transmission, and engine assembly. The operation is unnecessary where the dash is not a separate unit.
The dash on some cars has the fuel tank attached to it. In such cases the chassis is now practically completed. We will say it has now reached the end of the conveyer. Here gas and water are put in the containers and the engine is ready to start. This operation is sometimes accomplished by placing the rear wheels of the car between two revolving drums, which will cause the rear wheels to revolve.
The gear-shift lever is placed in some selected gear position and the clutch engaged; this in turn revolves the engine, and if the ignition is switched on, the engine will start. This operation saves considerable energy in cranking, or saves the electric current in the starting battery. After the engine is started, the chassis may be driven away on its own power, an operation which requires a man who can efficiently handle an automobile.
The chassis is now driven to the road-test department, where it is inspected for grease in the gear cases and such other inspections as may be necessary. Inspectors here need not be highly trained mechanics. Men with handicaps could take care of this work very nicely.
Possibly a road-test body is next attached to the chassis. This body usually contains sufficient weight (rocks, iron, or sand) to make up the equivalent of the automobile body. The chassis is then given a run over the country roads. Here the trained mechanic is necessary, able to adjust the carburetor, ignition, starting and lighting equipment, brakes, rear axle gears, and clutch. In fact almost any part of the car may need adjustment. He must be able to locate trouble of all kinds. In many cases the chassis test is very limited and the tester makes out a report, the work indicated being done in a department by less skilled mechanics who have specialized in one job, such as, for example, brakes. Where this method is used, the tester must be sure of his report. A road tester need not have a perfect body, but he must have practical experience and be physically able to handle a car.
Plan No. 1114. He that Hath a Trade Hath an Estate
There are many jobs in the testing department that a handicapped man can do, and the chances for advancement in this department are very good.
After the chassis has passed the inspector of the road-test department it may be given a dynamometer test. This is accomplished by attaching an electric dynamometer to the rear wheels either by belts or chains. The engine is then operated at various speeds and the horsepower developed noted. If it is not up to the average, a close inspection is made to determine where power is lost, whether in the engine, transmission, or rear axle. The dynamometer tester must be a man who has been trained for this particular job. He must understand his machine and be able to use simple formulas. Slight physical disabilities would not interfere with his efficiency. This is a desirable occupation and usually leads to something better.
After the final chassis test the chassis is thoroughly washed and new wheels mounted. This is a job similar to that spoken of under front and rear wheels. The chassis then goes to the paint shop for its final finish. Here the body and fenders are fitted.
There are many jobs in the painting department that are very well adapted to a handicapped man. He can become a rubber (one who rubs the surface of a body to make it smooth) if he has only one hand and one good leg. He can learn to paint, or he can learn to do upholstery work. This is one of the branches of the automobile industry in which the work is easy, and being inside work it should be a desirable occupation. The pay is good in any of these branches of the work.
Following the body and fenders the top is put on, then the windshield and instruments.
The tires and demountable rims are then mounted. (An old set of tires are used for road-test work.) This is another place where handicapped men may fit in, as certain handicaps would not interfere with the putting on of rims and tires.
The car is now completed and is delivered to the final test department. Here we have inspectors, testers, and checkers. In this department the car is carefully inspected as to missing parts in final assembly, finish, tires, and general condition. An expert makes a final test of the car. He drives it a few miles and notes the general running of the car. He may make final adjustments on the carburetor, etc. If the car passes his inspection, it is carefully checked as to equipment and tagged. In this department the tools are put in and the car made ready for shipment or to be driven away.
The men in this department must be men who have come up through the ranks, or men who are thoroughly familiar with the construction of the particular make of automobile. The inspector is usually a man who is able to fill out reports and keep his records. The checker does similar work, while the final tester must be a mechanic whose judgment of the mechanical condition of the car is not to be questioned. Handicapped mechanics could qualify for this position providing they were able to handle the car properly. One good hand and a part of the other and possibly one leg would allow a man to do this work. Wages are good and the position is a responsible one.
From the final test department, the car goes to the shipping department. There a crew of men load the cars and block them for shipping. The men employed here must have good strong bodies as they have to move the cars by hand and oftentimes considerable lifting is necessary. A handicapped man could hardly qualify in this work unless his injury had been very slight. Wages for this work are higher than those of common laborers and the work is steady.
The car is now ready for shipment and is transported to the agent of the manufacturer. Here a small crew unloads the cars and takes them to the warehouse for storage.
The men in this unloading crew are usually a little better grade of men than the loaders. Usually each one of these unloaders can drive or steer an automobile. The cars are sometimes driven away from the unloading platform under their own power, while in other cases they are towed at the end of a rope or cable. This branch of work is not very steady, and oftentimes the crews are made up of mechanics from the repair shop.
After the car has been placed in the warehouse for storage some one must check it up. This is usually done by the record clerk. The agent now puts his salesman out to sell the car and after it has been sold it is necessary for some one to deliver it to the customer. The car is brought from the warehouse to the garage or service department where it is inspected. This inspection consists of filling the fuel tank, oil reservoir, radiator, and grease cups, inflating tires, and making a road test. After delivery the customer must be instructed as to the proper way to handle the car, and several men are employed for this service.
The car is now in the hands of the customer, and after he has had some service out of it, it finally becomes necessary for him to have the car gone over and adjusted. He brings the car to the repair department for this work, which requires various specialists such as, for example, engine specialists, and specialists on ignition. In time the car is practically worn out or the owner wants a new one, and he therefore trades his old car on a new one or sells it outright.
Possibly the used-car dealer gets hold of it for resale. If so, he cleans it up, adjusts it, and possibly has it painted. Here again the services of helpers, mechanics, and salesmen are required.
Eventually the car finds its way to the junk dealer as no longer usable. This dealer tears the car to pieces and sells the brass, aluminum, iron, and steel taken from it. In many cases the car is an orphan—i. e., a car that is no longer manufactured—and the junk dealer saves such parts as may be sold to owners who have cars of the same make, but who are unable to purchase new parts. In this way many old cars are rebuilt and the life of the car extended several years. But in the end the car and its parts find their way to the scrap-iron dealer.
The scrap-iron man carefully assorts the various metals. Frames and other parts are cut to pieces with oxy-acetylene cutting torches, and the pieces are eventually sold to manufacturers, automobile companies, and other buyers. Material used in a car 10 years ago may in some cases be remolded and used in a car of the same make. From the beginning of the first piece made to the return of the junked automobile, the services of many thousands of men, skilled and unskilled, are required at every stage in the manufacture, maintenance, and salvaging of cars.
Working conditions as found in various factories are very good. In most factories the employee receives a great deal of attention. Practically all of the large factories have built hospitals, private schools, lunch rooms, rest rooms, club rooms, and play grounds, and have established welfare departments. The factories have been carefully surveyed and the ventilation and sanitary conditions brought to the highest point of efficiency. The average day is nine hours. Some factories work 8 and a few work 10 hours per day.
Living conditions are good in practically every locality where the automobile industry may be located. Street-car systems allow employees to live out in suburbs, where their rents are cheaper and where they may have small gardens.
There are some occupations, as stated above, which are not the most desirable for a man who has the education and ability to learn something better, but many of these occupations pay good wages, the work is steady, and the man can always find employment in them. Very few of the factories shut down during normal years, which means that a man is practically insured of steady work.
What has been said here concerning automobile assembly applies equally to motor truck and tractor assembly.
In the following paragraphs general statements will be made regarding the construction of each automobile unit, the nature of the work, the physical and mental qualifications of workers, and the desirability of the occupation involved. While the same class of work differs considerably from factory to factory, it is nevertheless true that up-to-date factories have much in common.
Automobile frames are made of pressed steel. Steel for the frame is run through a powerful press, which presses the side and cross members into proper shape. These presses are handled by men trained for this particular job. They must know when the work is right and how to adjust the machines. The dies which form the frames often break and require replacing and adjusting.
After the frame parts have been pressed into shape and sheared to length, they are passed to the assembly department. Here large punch and drill presses are used to make holes for rivets and bolts. The holes are first marked from a template or are layed out by a layout man. A template is a jig or fixture that will allow all the holes to be marked uniformly so that parts will be interchangeable and uniform. This worker or layout man must be able to read blue prints. He must also be able to move about freely.
After the frame members are marked they go to the press men where the holes are made. These men do not need to be expert mechanics. They are known as machine operators, and do nothing else but punch and drill holes in these pieces. A handicapped man could operate many of these machines.
The parts are now passed to the assembly floor where the frame is to be assembled. Here we find men who assemble the parts from blue prints. Other men clamp or bolt the frame together. Oftentimes the frame is put in a jig to hold it until completed. Rivet men work on the frame next, or possibly the same men who assemble it will rivet it. Some frames are hot riveted while others are cold riveted. Where the frame is hot riveted, the rivets must be heated. The common practice is to heat the rivets in an oil or gas furnace. Rivets are passed to the riveter while red hot and he places them in the holes; he is usually the buck up man, i. e., the man who holds the rivet in place with a large bar while it is headed on the other side. Two men are required for riveting, which is done with an air hammer. Each rivet takes but a few seconds. In a few places riveting machines (squeezers) are used which save considerable time. The man who does this work must be able to move about freely, and should have two good hands in order to handle the tools and rivets.
The frames may next pass to a department where other parts are attached, such as step-board hangers and spring hangers. It is now ready for shipment or for the paint department, as the case may be.
The frame construction does not require a large number of expert mechanics. Oftentimes some of this work is paid for by the piece. All of the piecework is inspected; and if not up to standard, must be corrected.
Framework is considered rough work and a man should be in good health to undertake it. General working conditions are good and work is steady.
Automobile springs are manufactured from high-grade steel. The steel must be heat treated and tempered so as to withstand thousands of vibrations which may tend to crystalize the steel and cause it to break. If the spring is tempered too hard it will break, and if it is not hard enough it will sag. Heat treatment of spring steel is a science in itself.
Red-hot steel is run through a mill which rolls it to the proper thickness and width. It is heat treated and forged to the proper shape and tempered in a bath, (oil-water, etc.), as may be best suited to that particular steel.
The compounding of the steels used in making springs requires careful attention. Here experts who have made a study of steels and alloys are employed, and the men engaged in this work must generally have had college training.
Rolling mills and forge machines are handled by men who have been trained to operate them. A handicapped man could handle some of the machines, some of which require two good hands while others require but one hand. Some can be operated by men with one leg.
Springs are assembled after being matched and formed, and are then ready for shipment. In assembling springs they must be scaled and oiled. The oil is to prevent rust while the scaling is done to remove the shell-like crust that may form in tempering. The spring bolt bushings are also installed in this department. A man having one good leg and two hands could assemble springs. Spring work as a whole requires a great number of men, some of whom must be highly trained in their special work, while others need no special training. The work is inside, wages are good, and factories run practically the year round. Spring factories are usually located near large automobile centers. While some automobile manufacturers make their own springs, the majority purchase from spring factories.
Front axles, unlike the frame, are forged instead of being pressed into shape. In the pressed steelwork the dies that shape the piece move slowly under great pressure. In the drop-forge work one die is stationary, and the other attached to a large weight operated by power is lifted several feet and released, striking the piece laid upon the stationary die a hard blow, and forging the metal into the shape. Before being placed in the drop forge machine the metal is heated in a blast furnace to the proper temperature.
Front axles are drop-forged from a solid bar of steel. They are forged into an I-beam form which gives them great strength. The end of the axle is forged into the shape of a fork or yoke.
This rough forge work is done by men who are capable of handling the weight of the axle and who can handle the machine. Care must be exercised or the dies will be ruined. Two to three men are usually necessary for each drop forge machine. They must bend the axle to proper shape while it is still hot. The axle is given a rough jig test before it goes to the heat-treatment department. After the axle is forged it goes to the heat-treatment department, where it is heated to take out any internal strain. In forging steel, the structure is disturbed and put under strain, and reheating of heat treatment relieves this strain, giving the steel greater strength.
The men who run these heat-treatment furnaces have been trained for this particular work, and they must move about freely and be able to handle the axles.
From the heat-treatment department the axle goes to the machine shop for the machine-work.
In another section of the axle department steering spindles are drop-forged. These parts are much smaller and are made in many different shapes. In fact, very few automobiles of different makes use the same shaped steering spindles. As this work is lighter, a man with one good leg and one arm can do some of the operations. A forge or blacksmith shop is usually connected with the drop forge department. In the forge shop the steering spindle arms are bent to the proper angle so as to give perfect steering to the automobile. The men must be qualified to do simple forge and bending work, and handicapped men could fit in here very well.
In the forge and spindle departments working conditions are not of the best, as there is noise, smoke, and the smell of hot steel. The light of the fires also is hard on the eyes. Pay is good, however, and the work is steady.
Small parts of the front axle are made and furnished in the machine department. All parts are finally passed to the assembly department.
In the assembly department the front axle and spindles are assembled ready for the automobile. Here we find stands for holding the axle forging, while the spindles are being attached. This operation requires men who can put together these parts. They must be able to handle tools and do the work in a thorough manner. Considerable judgment must be exercised. The bolts and parts must be lubricated before assembling, the proper adjustments made, and all nuts and bolts securely locked in place. The inspector passes upon all this work to see that it is properly done. A man must be able to use hand tools and move about, and should be able to use both hands freely.
In another department hubs for wheels are made. Here are the powerful presses in which the hubs are pressed out, and the punch and drill presses for making holes. Operators of these machines have duties similar to those of men in the spindle department. Hubs require some machine-shop work, which is done in the machine shop. Either ball or roller bearings must be placed in the hubs to reduce the friction.
Bearing manufacture is practically an industry in itself. In this plant or department, a force of real mechanics is employed, men who are authorities on steel and the heat treatment of steel. The wheel bearings of an automobile receive many severe shocks and strains, and a poor piece of steel or a poorly heat-treated piece of steel may do considerable damage to the car. Roller and ball bearings are used in several places in an automobile. They are used in the engine, magneto, generator clutch, transmission and rear axle. Wherever it is desirable to reduce friction to save power, an antifriction bearing is used.
Research work as connected with bearing manufacture covers a large field. It includes not only work in the laboratory but as well work done in the field, wherever tractors are used. The engineers are always watching their product for any chance to improve it.
In manufacturing bearings, whether ball or roller, a high-grade pure iron is selected. This raw material is put into furnaces and melted. Alloys are added in proper portions to make a tough, close-grained long-wearing steel, able to resist shocks. Samples of this steel are tested in the laboratory as to their hardness, grain, and tensile strength. This is work for a carefully trained metallurgist, who must have well-trained assistants. Handicapped men who are technically qualified can take up this branch of the industry.
After the steel has been compounded it goes to the drop-forge department, where the balls or rollers are rough forged. The trip hammer in this department is controlled by one foot, and the steel must be turned over several times in passing through the various dies. The rough-forged balls or rollers are next taken to the machine shop or grinding department.
In the various departments of the bearing manufacturing plants small electric cars are used to pull trailers loaded with parts to various points of the factory. The operator of these cars must be a man who has the free use of one foot for operating the brake, and he must have two hands to operate the control levers. This work is usually done standing on the truck. However, some of the operators are provided with seats.
The balls and rollers are next machined and ground to size. They are then carefully assorted as to sizes and passed to the inspection department, where men sitting at benches carefully check and test each piece, using special testing devices and machines. This department could readily use a man with one leg, but he should have the free use of two hands. A loss of one or more fingers would not be a serious handicap. As this work is all inspection work, it is done sitting. The department is usually quiet, and the work is not hard. Conditions and pay are good.
In another department the races (inside and outside) and the retainers are manufactured. The work is similar to that done in the ball or roller department, although the pieces are different. It includes forging, machining, grinding and inspecting.
The bearing parts have been made and tested, the bearing is now ready for assembling. In the assembling department men sit at their work. A man with one leg, and possibly one who had lost both feet, might find employment. Some of the work is done by machinery, while some is handwork. The pieces are placed upon benches, and the bearing is then assembled and placed in a machine that clinches the cage or retainer so as to hold in the balls or rollers. The bearing is then ready for the inspector who determines whether or not it has been properly put together, and if the balls and rollers are free in the cages.
The next step is to lubricate the bearings with an acid-proof grease to prevent rust. The bearing is then wrapped in oil paper and placed in a box ready for the storeroom or for shipment.
There are several operations in this department where a handicapped man could secure employment. The work as a whole is not hard, conditions are excellent, and the wages are good. Some of the work is noisy and is not desirable for men with certain disabilities, but on the other hand there are places where men who have only one eye, arm, or leg could find employment on equal terms with other men.
It should be noted that large bearing factories have many improved methods of manufacturing which vary considerably from that described above. Only a general statement has been attempted.
The building of rear axles is practically an industry in itself. There are several large companies who do nothing else but manufacture gears, and front and rear axles. In this branch of the industry we find all kinds of work going on, including forging, pressed-steel work, machining, heat treatment, and oxy-acetylene welding.
The rear-axle housing may be a casting or it may be pressed steel, or a forging. Where castings are used we have foundry work employing molders, core men, flask men, and cupola men. Most of the jobs in the foundry require men of sturdy build and good physical condition. Some foundry work, however, such as inspection, core work, and testing small castings, can be done sitting. Again there are jobs, such as trimming, grinding, and filing, that can be done by a man with one arm or one leg. The average foundry man is well paid and works short hours, but the work is dirty and not generally well suited for handicapped men.
The pressed-steel department of the rear-axle factory is equipped with special machines for pressing various parts into shape. Some of these machines could be operated by a man with one good leg or one leg and one arm.
In another department of the axle factory, brake supports are assembled. Here men stand at benches, riveting and bolting to the axle, housing the various necessary braces, and other pieces. Some of this work is heavy and some very light.
Gears for the rear axle, some eight in number, have been machined in the machine shop, heat-treated in the heat-treatment department, tested and inspected in the inspection department, and are now ready for the assembly of the differential.
In the machine shop and inspection department much of the work could be done efficiently by handicapped men who have been trained for it. Some of this work requires technical skill, some a technical education, but some of it requires just plain everyday common sense.
The differential housing (two halves) is usually a malleable casting. It is machined in the machine department and inspected in the inspection department.
All of the necessary parts for assembling the differential are brought to the differential assembly department. Here men fit gears, rivet gears to cases, and assemble the differentials. In some places this work is done by the progressive method, one man putting on one piece and another man another piece, while in other places one man assembles the whole differential. In this department, a man with one leg and two good hands could very well do the work. He must be able to use hand tools, and must know how properly to adjust the gears in the case. The operation is quickly learned and does not require a highly trained man.
After the differential is assembled, it passes to the inspector, and if it meets the necessary requirements, it is ready for the rear axle.
The rear-axle housing having been equipped with brake supports, trues rod and brake levers, is ready for the brake bands and shoes. The brakes are lined with an oil and waterproof lining, which is riveted to the bands or shoes. This operation is done in a riveting machine, each rivet being countersunk and headed. Riveting is done by one man who does nothing else but rivet brake lining to the bands or shoes. A handicapped man might do this work.
The lining having been riveted to the bands, they are now ready for assembling on the rear-axle housing. In some factories a whole axle is assembled by two men, while in others using the progressive method, it is assembled by a number of men, each man doing one specific operation.
After the fittings have been applied to the axle housing, it is then ready for the differential assembly, which is the work of one or two men. They must know how to install the bearings properly on the differential and drive-pinion shaft, and must know how to adjust the gears. If the gears are not properly adjusted, they will be noisy and the wear upon them will be considerably increased. It takes practice to do this work efficiently. Men who assemble the rear axle and differential must be able to move about freely, and should have the free use of both hands.
After the axle has been assembled, it is inspected and passed to the testing department. In the testing department, wheels are applied and the axle mounted on a stand for testing. The axle is driven by an electric motor, brakes being applied to provide the equivalent of a load. The tester then notes the noise of the axle, and the contact surfaces of the teeth, and if final adjustments are necessary they are made in this department. The men are rear-axle experts, and understand thoroughly all the adjustments of the rear axle. They must be able to handle the axles and lifting is often times necessary.
The axle after being tested is numbered, tagged, and sent to the storeroom for shipment. In the rear-axle factory, there are many classes of workers which have not been mentioned. Some of these are draftsmen, tool-room helpers, storekeepers, clerks, checkers, timekeepers, janitors, gate keepers, machine hands, truckmen, and mechanics. Much of the work done by these men could be done by men handicapped by loss of hand, leg, eye, or hearing. All of the work pays a good living wage, and working conditions are good.
Unit manufacturing has been specialized to such an extent that there are now factories which manufacture nothing but universal joints. These are small but very important units. In the universal joint factories we find steel presses, drop-forge machines, machine-shop equipment, and assembly departments. The work as carried on in these plants has been fairly explained in other parts of this monograph.
Transmissions are another unit of the automobile that are sometimes made in a specialized plant. There are several well-known transmission firms who make nothing else but transmissions and gears.
The transmission case is usually made of aluminum and is cast into the proper shape. In the foundry are found the same classes of workers as in the axle factory, only the men are casting aluminum instead of steel.
The case having been cast is dumped from the sand, cleaned, trimmed, and inspected. Any small holes are welded shut, and the case is then cleaned ready for the sand blast.
In sand blasting a stream of air and sand is played against the part. The air is under high pressure and the sand fed in plays upon the aluminum at a high velocity, cleaning and smoothing it. Operators of the sand-blast machine wear masks and dust-proof suits and work in a special cabinet. It is impossible to work without this protection.
After being inspected the transmission case is passed to the machine department, where it is machined to receive the bearings, covers, etc.
Gears, shafts, and shifting forks used in the transmission are also made in the machine shop. The gears and shafts are next heat treated and tested. They are then ground to insure accuracy and are again tested for trueness. This testing operation is done by men who sit at benches. Part of this work is done sitting, and could be done by a man with one leg. Gears are tested as to hardness and for centers. Special equipment is used for these operations, and a man does not need experience other than that learned at the work in a short time.
From the inspection department the transmission case, shafts, gears, and bearings (the bearing having been made in another department or purchased) are taken to the assembly department. Here we find men standing at benches putting together the various parts of the transmissions. Gears are riveted or keyed to shafts, bearings are fitted to cases, and shafts and parts put in the case. Shafts and bearing are then adjusted and the adjustments locked. The assembled transmission is now ready for the inspectors, who check the work. The work in the transmission assembly department is similar to that of the rear axle department. Some transmissions are heavy and some light. The employee in this department must be able to move about freely, and must be able to use such hand tools as wrenches, files, and hammers. He needs no special instruction.
The transmission is now passed to the testing department where it is tested for noisy bearings and gears. If it passes this test, the covers are put on to keep out dirt. It is then numbered and sent to the stock department.
In a transmission factory there are many occupations that could be filled by men with slight handicaps. Much of the work can be done by men who have lost fingers, one hand, a leg, or foot, and by men who are not physically strong. The factories pay good wages, hours are reasonable, and the work is steady. Much of the work is piece-work.
Practically all parts of the clutch are made in the machine shop. After the parts have been machined and inspected they are sent to the assembly department, where the work is similar to that described for other units. It requires a man who can use both hands and move about. Wages for this work are practically the same as are paid the assembler in the other unit factories—from 80 to 60 cents per hour—and general conditions are the same as in other factories.
There are a number of concerns which build only automobile engines, and the automobile engine factory is usually a large plant.
Usually about three classes or grades of engines are built in a factory which makes a specialty of engines. The first class or grades of engines go into the higher-priced cars, the second grade into the second-class cars, and the third grade into the cheaper cars.
The engine factory must have its foundry in which are employed such foundry experts and helpers as patternmakers, coremen, cupolamen, molders, and machine operators. Some engine parts are aluminum, some brass, some steel, and some cast iron. There is much work in the foundry that could easily be done by handicapped men—by men, for example, who have stiff joints and who are unable to move about freely, and men who have lost one arm, a hand, or a leg.
The crank case of the engine is usually cast of aluminum. After this part has been cast it goes to a cleaning and inspecting department, where it is carefully inspected before any machine work is done upon it. After it passes inspection it is rough jigged and the machine work is started. After the milling, operations are done on the case—such as smoothing the sides, top, and bottom—and the case then goes to a layout department, where it is placed upon a large surface plate. Layout men, using surface gauges and such other tools, mark out the dimensions and spot holes for bolts, studs, etc. The crank case then goes back to the machine-shop department, where it is drilled, tapped, and machined. It is then inspected, after which the bearings are fitted. Some engines have the bearings babbitted into the case, while others have them detachable, the bearings being machined to fit the case.
After the bearings have been fitted into the case they are reamed with a bearing reamer. The lower half of the crank case, which is usually the oiled reservoir covering the timing-gear case, and other crank-case parts are finished in their respective departments. The crank case, having gone through a number of small operations, is now ready for the assembly department. There are a number of places in the crank-case department where handicapped men could find employment. Some of the operations could well be done by men who have lost a hand, eye, or leg, or by men who have stiff joints. The work in this department is usually noisy, and possibly not well suited for men of a nervous temperament.
The crank shaft of the automobile engine is usually drop-forged. However, a few shafts are made from a solid block of steel. When the shafts are drop-forged, a number of machine operators are employed. The men operating these forge machines need not be experts in that they are trained in the factory for this particular job. Some of these machines could very easily be operated by men with one arm, or with one leg and one arm. If the crank shaft had been drop-forged, it goes to the heat treatment department for heat treating. It is then sent to the machine shop where it is rough turned, and in a number of cases is then sent back to the heat-treatment department. The shaft is then machined, rough ground and finished ground to size. It is now passed to the inspection department where the journals are inspected as to size, length, and trueness. The shaft then goes to a balancing machine where it is given a running test and carefully balanced.
The flywheel, having been machined in another department, is then fitted to the crank shaft and the shaft and flywheel are balanced together. This balancing of the shaft and flywheel has much to do with reducing the vibration of the engine when in use. After passing this test the shaft is ready to be fitted to the crank case. The fitting to the case is done by scraping—an operation which requires a man who has had previous training in this line of work to develop a very particular skill in it. A man must be very efficient to turn out the proper amount of work each day. The scraping operation does not, however, take much time with present-day equipment. After the bearing is scraped to fit the shaft, the bearings are shimmed and tightened to the proper tension, and the shaft and case is ready for a block test. It is important that these bearings be tightened to the proper tension, since if they are too tight the bearing may burn out from the increased friction, while if they are not tight enough the engine will soon develop a knock when it is put into service.
The greater part of the work done on the crank shaft is done in the machine-shop department. Outside of this department, however, there are a number of jobs that could be done by handicapped men, among them being those of inspectors, balancing machine hand men, and bearing scrapers. Inspectors and balancers should have the free use of two hands. They are not required to move about rapidly, but should be able to move from one place to another. The bearing scrapers could be men who have lost part of one hand, one eye, or one leg. This work requires bending over so that a man who has had stomach wounds or injury to the back could not do it.
The cam shaft for the engine is drop-forged and rough turned, the work being similar to that done in the other drop-forge departments. The shaft then goes to an electroplating department where it is copper plated. It is then sent back to the machine department where the cam faces and such other places that are to be hardened are ground to a slightly oversized measurement. The shaft is then sent to the heat-treatment department where it is hardened. The process of this hardening is to pack the shaft in a large metal box together with such hardening compound as has been selected by the factory. The box containing the shafts to be hardened is then put into a heat-treatment furnace where it is heated to a proper temperature and allowed to remain there for the proper length of time, after which the shafts are quenched in a bath to finish the heat-treating process.
The copper plating, which has been put on the shaft in a previous operation, prevents the carbon from entering the shaft during the heat-treating process. The carbon enters the shaft only where the copper plating has been removed. After heat treatment the shaft is rough tested for trueness. It is then sent to the grinding department where it is ground to the final dimensions. The shaft then goes to the inspection department, where it is carefully inspected before being sent to the stock assembly division. Such other parts, as timing gears and shafts, are machined and inspected in other parts of the factory.
The valve tappets of the average automobile engine are of the mushroom or button-head type. This type of tappet is either drop-forged or made of pressed steel. The work requires about the same class of workmen as have been mentioned in drop-forge and die work under frames and axles. After the tappets have been formed into shape they are then rough turned, after which they are heat treated, machined, and inspected. They are then assembled ready for the engine. The assembly and inspection departments are about the only places where handicapped men could be used to an advantage, with exception of the machine-shop work.
The assembly and inspection work of the valve tappets can be done sitting down, and can be handled very well by men who have lost one or even both legs. They should, however, have the free use of one hand, and of at least part of the other, so as to enable them to use special testing tools and equipment.
Connecting rods for engines are drop-forged and machined in their respective departments. They are then inspected before the bearings are fitted to them. This inspection work could be very well done by a man with two hands and one leg, or by a man who is capable of lifting light weights and who can move about with ease. The bearings of the average automobile engine are detachable, and are made in a special department and sent to the connecting-rod assembly department for installing in the connecting rod. Here the bearings are fitted to the connecting rod in both upper and lower halves, after which the bearing is reamed. The bearing is then scraped to a shaft until it has the proper bearing surface. The rod is then jigged in a fixture so that it will be in proper alignment when it is installed in the engine. The connecting rods are then carefully weighed so that all rods or pairs of rods are of equal weight. They are then tagged or marked and sent to the crank shaft department, where they are fitted to the crank shaft upon which they are to be used. The connecting rod department could furnish employment for a number of disabled men. Some of this work is done sitting down and some is done standing at a bench. The bearing work done on the connecting rods could be done by men who have one good leg and one good arm, and the free use of the stub of the other arm, or a device could be used to take the place of the other hand. No special educational requirements are indicated for this work and no special instructions are necessary.
Cylinders for engines, having been cast in the foundry, are rough-tested, the core sand removed, and the cylinders scaled. Some of this work is done sitting down and could very well be done by men who have received injuries to their legs. However, they should have the free use of both hands. Cylinders, after being scaled and cleaned, are sent to the machine department where they are machined and ground. This work is all machine-shop work.
After being ground, cylinders are inspected for trueness and general condition. The valves are then ground to the cylinders. This operation can be done by men who have the free use of one hand and of part of the other hand. Some of this work is done sitting down, so that a man need not have two good legs. Some of the valve grinding is often done in machines, in which case it is necessary that the operator watch a number of valves on the machine at one time. This operation would require a man who could move about freely in order to inspect the machine.
Pistons for the engine, having been machined and ground, are inspected as to sizes, dimensions, etc. This operation could well be done by a man with two good hands, but he must be able to stand at a bench and move about freely. The pistons are then fitted to the cylinders so as to get a proper fit in each cylinder. They are also carefully balanced in pairs and equal weights are selected as nearly as possible. The fitting of pistons to cylinders and the balancing of them could well be done by handicapped men. The piston pins also are fitted to the piston and to the connecting rod. This work is done standing at benches, and could be done by men who have the free use of both hands.
Piston rings which are made from castings in the machine shop, where they have been ground, are sent to the inspector who carefully inspects each ring. This work is light and is well suited to a man who could sit at a bench, but he must have the free use of both hands. Piston rings are fitted to cylinders and pistons in another department. This operation requires a little more skill than some of the others mentioned and a man must have some mechanical ability to learn to do the work efficiently. There are, however, many minor injuries which would not prevent a man from doing this work.
The manifolds, both inlet and exhaust are cast in the foundry department. They are then machined, where necessary, after which they are inspected. This department could employ disabled men for inspection work.
There are a number of bolts and screws and special fittings which must be carefully inspected before they can go to the assembly department. Every bolt must be looked over as to its general condition before it can be used. This work alone offers employment to a large number of men in every automobile engine factory. It is very light and a man in very delicate condition could efficiently perform a number of these operations. In a number of positions one hand is all that is necessary. Men could either sit or recline on the bench and do the work. In fact, men in bed even could come up to production in this particular kind of work.
The oil pump for the engine, having been machined in the various departments is assembled by men who sit at benches. This work is very light work and can be handled to advantage by men with handicaps. They should, however, have the use of both hands.
We have now mentioned the various units which go to make up an engine and have come to the point where it is necessary to assemble these various parts.
In the up-to-date automobile factory, the engine assembly is done by the progressive system. The conveyor system which is used in engine assembly is similar to that used in the chassis assembly, described in another section of this bulletin. The crank case is usually mounted upon this conveyor or movable stand. The crank shaft, having been assembled to the case in another department, is now ready for the connecting rods, and the rods with the pistons are attached. The cam shaft, tappets, and tappet guides are then installed, and the cylinders are mounted. The engine moves on to another section where the manifolds are attached to the cylinders. It then passes to a section where the carburetor is mounted. Next the ignition system is attached, and the starting and lighting and such other units as this particular engine may require are installed. All these operations have taken place while the engine has been moving. Special tools are used during these operations, such as air wrenches, socket wrenches, and any tool that may save a few seconds time.
The work that is done on this engine conveyor system is considered to be hard work in that each man must keep moving at top speed in order to turn out the required production in that department. The men are well paid and they must be qualified to take care of their particular section of this conveyor. There are a number of places, however, where handicapped men can be used in this work. Very few of these operations could be efficiently handled by a man who did not have the free use of both hands. He could, however, carry on some of this work, if he had received injuries to one of his legs. All of this work is inspected and a man is carefully checked as to the work he has done.
After the engine has been inspected, it is ready for a block test. The conveyor carries the engine to this block-test department, where the engine is mounted on a special stand and is connected to an electric motor, which drives the engine at sufficient speed to lubricate it and to work in the moving parts. The block-test mechanics are men who can pick out noises and defects in the engine. They must watch the engine for hot bearings, loose bearings, and in fact this department is a sort of running-test inspection department. If the engine does not show any defects and meets normal requirements, it is given a running test under its own power. This test is oftentimes done on the same motor or electric set that it has been run in by, or in other words the electric motor becomes a generator. This test is known as the dynamometer test.
The engine running under its own power is loaded down by the resistance of the electric generator and the horsepower noted. The carburetor and ignition is adjusted to bring the engine to the normal horsepower. If the engine fails to come up to normal horsepower, it is rejected and must go back for rebuilding. After it passes the horsepower test, the oil is removed and the engine is sent to the storeroom or chassis assembly department as the case may be.
The inspection department of the engine assembly could employ a number of disabled men provided they were qualified by mechanical experience. The block test department could employ men with slight handicaps who have had previous experience in engine work. They should, however, be expert gas engine men. This is true also of men in the dynamometer-test department. In the engine-assembly department, however, some helpers and less skilled mechanics could very well find employment even though disabled.
All work in engine factories can be termed desirable employment, since up-to-date factories are well equipped, and well heated, lighted, and ventilated. Pay is good and the factory usually runs the year around. Engine factories are usually located near large automobile centers, for the same reason that the automobile factories are located there, namely, railroad facilities, power facilities, and general living conditions.
Carburetors are usually made by a manufacturer who makes a specialty of making carburetors. Carburetion is one of the most interesting subjects in the automotive industry, and manufacturers in this line employ large staffs of experts and research men. They employ also engineers for the purpose of making tests of the various types of carburetors, and of the different classes of fuels.
Some carburetor factories have their own foundries where they make their own castings, which are usually of aluminum or bronze. Some of the highest types of foundry men may be found in this department, as this particular branch of work must be of very high grade. Manufacturers take pride in the appearance of their castings. In a foundry of this type there are several occupations that disabled men could do, such as pattern work, core making, molding, and even flask work.
After the castings have been poured they are ready for cleaning and scaling. Part of this work is done in the sand blast. The castings are then carefully inspected, after which they are ready for the machine-shop department. There are a number of machines used in carburetor work which do not really come under the head of machine-shop equipment, in that they are punch presses. These presses are used for punching the float parts for the carburetor and other similar pieces. The float is usually made up of two pieces, pressed from a flat piece of stock into a cup shape. These two halves are put together and soldered to make an air-tight chamber. This construction, of course, will vary with the different makes of carburetors. Where this work is done, disabled men could handle the pieces very nicely. They could also do such soldering as is done on floats.
There are many small screws, nozzles, and similar parts made in the machine shop which require a large number of machine operators. The machines include among others automatic screw machines. After these parts have been machined, it is necessary that each part be carefully inspected before it goes to the assembly department, and this inspection work is very light work, well suited to disabled men who are unable to do heavy work. The use of one arm is about all that is necessary to perform one of these operations. There are also a number of testing operations in carburetor factories which could be handled to an advantage by handicapped men.
After the carburetor parts have been machined the carburetor is ready for final assembly. This work is usually done by men sitting at benches, who assemble the various sizes of carburetors on the various benches. The work could be done by men who have lost the use of their feet or legs, as it does not require very much moving about. After the carburetor has been assembled, it is given a preliminary test on a rack to determine whether or not the float level is too high, and whether or not the joints of the carburetor lack fuel. After the carburetor passes this test it goes to a machine department, where it is tried out on an engine. The running test is the most skilled work done along this line, and requires men who understand the operation of gasoline engines and who are capable of attaching and detaching a carburetor quickly. It is not necessary in all cases that every carburetor be tested on an engine. Where this is not done the carburetors are inspected and passed on to the shipping department.
On the whole, there are a number of desirable places in the carburetor department which are well suited for handicapped men. The working conditions in these factories are good and the wages paid are about the same as those paid by any general assembly or manufacturing plant.
A number of factories make a specialty of building ignition apparatus for automobiles. In them we find the usual organization found in other similar factories. Some of these factories build ignition systems on a large scale, in which case the organization is elaborate.
One of the most important factors of the ignition system is the insulation. A compound has been discovered, known as “bakelite,” which has a very high resistance to electricity. This substance usually comes to the manufacturer in powdered form and the manufacturer puts it through his mixing process.
The bakelite for parts to be made is carefully weighed for each piece. It is then placed in jigs which hold contacts, segments, etc. The jigs or molds are then placed in a molding machine to which is applied considerable pressure and heat. The heat causes the bakelite to run together, forming one solid piece of material when it is properly cured. After the standard heat has been applied to the bakelite for the proper length of time the mold is placed in another press and cold water is run around it to chill or set the bakelite. The molded part is then removed from the press and is ready for inspection.
When the part comes from the mold it is very shiny and smooth in appearance. The inspection of this part is to determine whether or not the contacts have stayed in proper position and whether or not there are any flaws in the bakelite. Bakelite parts are used in many places in the ignition system. There are a number of places in the bakelite section of the ignition factory where disabled men might well find employment.
Men with one leg could weigh out the bakelite, and a man with one leg and one arm could possibly run the presses around the bakelite for curing. This work is done in a dry department; the conditions are very good and the wages are reasonable.
In the coil department of the ignition factories we find various types of work going on. Here are machines for winding the primary and secondary coils, testing machines, etc. The ignition coil is made up of an iron core, an insulator around the iron core, a primary winding, a secondary winding, and a condenser. Some coils have vibrators attached, in which case the vibrators are mounted on the outside of the coil windings.
The core of the coil is made up of a bundle of soft iron wires. The fiber tube is commonly used as insulating material. This tube is filled with the soft iron wire. The primary winding, of which there are about two layers, is wound on the outside of the fiber tube. This operation takes but a few seconds, the tube being placed between a pair of centers on a small motor driven machine similar to a small lathe. The wire is guided on to this tube while it is revolving. This work is done sitting, and could very well be done by men who have received injuries to their legs, or by men who have received injuries to their spine. The main requirements are that the operator shall have the free use of both hands, and be able to see properly the work that is going on.
The secondary or high-tension winding of the coil is similar to the low-tension winding. The high-tension winding, however, has many turns of very fine wire no larger than the ordinary thread used on sewing machines. This wire is insulated, and care must be exercised that the insulation is not broken. The secondary winding also is wound on a fiber tube on a machine similar to that on which the primary coil is wound. Between each layer of wire in these windings a small strip of insulation is placed. This, of course, is done at the end of each layer of wire. In carrying out this operation the operator must be very careful that the insulation is not broken; that the insulation is properly placed, and that the layers of wire are smooth and uniform.
The condenser of the ignition coil is made of two layers of tin foil and several layers of insulation, such as paraffin paper. This operation requires a person who is very careful, since if this particular part is not carefully constructed it will not function properly. The condenser is also machine wound in a number of cases, and skill comes with practice in this work.
Requirements for this job are about the same as found in the coil winding, viz., that the operator must have the free use of both hands, and be able to watch his work carefully.
After these various parts have been made in their respective departments they are ready for the industrial tests. This is done with meters to determine the amount of resistance that each coil has. If the resistance is not the same as found in other coils, the insulation is broken or the coil is shorted, in which case the coil is rejected. The condenser test is somewhat different. Here we find that special meters are used for determining the capacity. These testing operations require a man who has been trained for this particular job. The work is usually done sitting down.
After these various parts have passed inspection they are sent to the coil assembly, where they are put together in their proper relation. Where the coil is a box coil, the windings and condenser are placed in a box and hot paraffin or an insulating compound is poured into the box. After it has cooled all the ignition parts are held securely in place. The coil is then finished and is ready for the final test. This work is all light work, and there are a number of positions in which handicapped men could be employed.
In another part of the ignition factory, we find the breaker mechanism and other ignition apparatus being manufactured. This mechanism requires considerable machine work, which is done on special machines in the machine-shop department. After these parts have been machined and inspected they come through the assembly department, where the ignition apparatus is assembled. Here we find the workers at benches assembling the very fine delicate parts of the apparatus. The small springs, platinum points, screws, etc., must be placed in their proper places and with proper tension. After the ignition apparatus has been properly assembled it is inspected, and then goes to the testing department, where apparatus is tested as to its efficiency, etc.
In another department, wires are cut and made into proper lengths for certain ignition jobs. Here the terminals are soldered to the ends of the wires. Sometimes these operations are done on a conveyer system. This work is done sitting, and is well adapted to disabled men.
In the ignition, assembly, inspection, and testing departments, there are a number of operations that could be done by men with one arm and no legs, one leg and two arms, one eye, one arm and one leg, by men who have lost their hearing, and even by men who have been blinded. The work as found in the ignition department is light, working conditions are good, and the pay is average.
Where the ignition manufacturer manufactures magnetos, we find a little different class of work going on. Armatures are wound with primary and secondary windings, and this is done on a somewhat specialized machine. Insulation, also, is somewhat specialized, and assembly work differs somewhat from other assembly work. Magnetos must be made, charged, and tested. Condensers are of a special design. As a whole, however, the work in the magneto department requires about the same class of workmen as are found in the ignition department.
The electrical equipment of the automobile has reached a point of development which has brought about a large demand for this particular kind of apparatus. A number of factories make a specialty of this kind of equipment.
The starting and lighting equipment of the automobile, being made up of a number of pieces of material, requires considerable machine work, which will not be described here. The armature, which is made up of a shaft, laminated core, and a commutator, is all built in a sub-assembly department, after which the armature passes to the winding department, where special machines are operated. The operators of these machines do not need to be experts, but they do become very efficient at this kind of work after a short time. The wire is wound on the armature in the proper slots and the ends come out to the proper length. The sleeves are then put over the ends of the wires for insulation and the wires trimmed to exact length, after which the wire ends are soldered to the proper commutator bars.
The generator also has field coils or windings. These windings are wound on jigs for this work and are later placed in the fieldpieces of the generator. Each coil is tested before it is assembled to the field, and each armature is tested before it is assembled. After the pieces have been made in the various departments the generator is sent to the assembly department. Here the assembler is furnished with the generator castings, coils, pole pieces, bearings, armature, plates, brushes, and such other fittings as may be necessary. He proceeds to assemble the complete generator, after which the generator passes to the inspection department where it is inspected and tested as to its output.
The starting and lighting factory offers a number of splendid opportunities for the placement of disabled men. Handicapped men could very efficiently wind armatures. It has been said that a blind man could wind an armature after some practice. Men without legs could do the soldering of these armatures; men without legs could wind and test field windings and could assemble generators; men with one arm could test and wind field windings and do several other operations.
The starter motor as used in the automobile is a piece of equipment similar to that of a generator, about the only difference being that the starter motor is a little heavier machine, and the armature is wound with heavier wire. It is made for the purpose of cranking the automobile engine, and must withstand considerable abuse. Disabled men could make the tests on generators and starter motors with very little difficulty.
The output of a generator must be controlled to a limited degree. This is done by what is known as voltage regulation. There must be some kind of a relay to disconnect the storage battery and generator when the engine is not running. This is done by what is known as the circuit breaker. The voltage regulator and circuit breaker of the automobile starting and lighting system is made up of coils, springs, and breaker mechanism, depending upon the type of regulator and circuit breaker used. This work is all light work, usually handwork, and could be done by disabled men to a large extent. The assembling of this work requires the free use of both hands and a man must be able to see the work that is being done.
As a whole, work in ignition, starting and lighting departments is very desirable work. The working conditions are considered very good, the hours reasonable, and the pay about the same as in other manufacturing concerns.