[XXVIII-50] A favorite amusement of all Cent. Am. Laferrière, De Paris à Guatém., 56-7; Reichardt, Nic., 123-5. In connection with the manners and customs of Costa Ricans, see also Frisch, Staaten von Mex., 88; Wagner, Costa R., 170-8, 189-92, 194.

[XXVIII-51] The native women when carrying a jar of water on their heads present the sculptural profiles of caryatides. Belly, Nic., i. 198. Beautifully moulded and unobtrusive in their manners; kind and hospitable to strangers. Squier's Travels, i. 284, 294.

[XXVIII-52] The women are not well educated; but they are simple and unaffected, quick of apprehension, and ready at good-natured repartee. Id., 269.

[XXVIII-53] Cemeteries being generally in bad condition. Squier has it that the priests have perpetuated the practice, because they derive a considerable fee from each burial. Travels, i. 383-4.

[XXVIII-54] 'The aristocracy keeps the shops, and there it dozes;... the lower orders keep the plaza, and there they doze.' Boyle's Ride Across a Continent, 102.

[XXVIII-55] Belly, Nic., 217, speaking of those of mixed blood, says they are the victims of traditional indolence, and of the absence of moral light rather than of actual depravity. The nearer to the pure Indian type, the more reliable and faithful they are. Stout, Nic., 118, says that the Nicaraguans are possessed of many virtues.

[XXVIII-56] Such offences which in other countries would be indelible blots, throwing their authors out of the company of honorable people, are after a while overlooked, and the perpetrators reinstated in society. Lévy, Nic., 275.

[XXVIII-57] The waistcoat and cravat are often dispensed with. Gloves are rarely worn. Loud colors, with large chains and trinkets are too often displayed.

[XXVIII-58] The ordinary saddle or albarda is a cheap affair and uncomfortable. There are horses of an easy amble, which are quite rapid and yet gentle. Squier's Travels, i. 157; ii. 91.

[XXVIII-59] Lévy, Nic., 272; Belly, Nic., i. 198; Wells' Explor., 74-5. The people generally are clean in their persons except when travelling, or when ill, and in the latter case the touch of water is prohibited. Squier's Travels, 59, 153-4, 269, 271, 289.

[XXVIII-60] For a hot climate the adobe, warm in winter and cool in summer, is not to be surpassed as a dwelling. In the courts are shade trees, making the corridors upon which all the rooms open exceedingly pleasant. Id., i. 33-4; Id., Cent. Am., 365; Id., Nic., 649; Stout's Nic., 38, 62-4, 66. Doors and windows are wide. The windows have no glass, being enclosed on the outside with an iron railing constructed sometimes like a balcony. The floors are of soft brick. The roof, sloping considerably, is of concave tiles. The yard often has a flower garden, or is used for raising poultry, or maybe pigs.

[XXVIII-61] Kitchen, laundry, stables, etc., are at the end of the yard, or when possible, in a separate yard.

[XXVIII-62] In late years some foreign furniture has been imported. Most parlors are furnished as follows: Chairs with leather seats, easy chairs of the same, mostly rockers. In houses of the wealthy is a round or oval centre-table, and other tables fitting into the corners, and possibly a piano, a hanging lamp, and small mirrors, together with framed lithographs or paintings hanging on the walls. The bedrooms have similar chairs, a hammock, and a bed of rawhide extended and nailed to a wooden frame, supported by four legs. At each end rises a pillar to sustain a sort of awning which covers the whole bed, and answers also for a mosquito net. The appurtenances of the bed are a mat, sheets, and pillows. No mattresses are ever used. Some persons prefer a common cot. Levy, Nic., 262-7; Belly, Nic., 197.

[XXVIII-63] In some places coyol oil or lard in tin lamps are used, with or without a glass chimney. In Segovia the people often have no other light than that emitted by a burning piece of resinous pine.

[XXVIII-64] Quite simple. Squier's Travels, 120, 272-5. Breakfast invariably comprises eggs, roast meat, beans, and cheese, to which other dishes may be added or not; finishing with chocolate or coffee, the former mixed with roasted corn, and the latter with milk. The dinner consists of soup, boiled meat and greens, followed by a stew of beef, pork, fish, or fowl, with some vegetables, and dessert in the form of a variety of dulces. Rice is as necessary at dinner as beans at breakfast. Between breakfast and dinner, fruits or some cooling beverage are partaken of. Supper is a frugal meal, accompanied with chocolate, or tiste, which is the national beverage of Nic.—a mixture of cacao, and ground roasted corn, beaten in cold water with sugar. Wheaten bread is made of imported flour; but it is too expensive for general use, and is generally sweetened. The tortilla of Nic. is larger, thicker, and of coarser dough than in other parts. In many places it is considered 'artículo de lujo,' and instead of it, boiled or roasted green plantains are used. Wine is rarely brought into requisition. The only fermented liquor in common use is the aguardiente distilled from molasses, which only the lower classes drink, and not to excess. The poorer classes are very irregular in their eating, for they eat at all hours; living mostly on plantains, beans, cheese, and chicharrones and other fat portions of pork. Fruit in superabundance is eaten. Lévy, Nic., 267-72; Stout's Nic., 130-2; Squier's Travels, i. 271.

[XXVIII-65] The govt has at the capital a fine military band, which gives public concerts in the open air twice a week. The marimba and old Spanish guitar are much used. Occasionally a Spanish dramatic or zarzuela company, or a troupe of acrobats or other artists, visit the country.

[XXVIII-66] In Leon some of the élite do not frequent the place, but they, not excepting the priests, practise it in their corridors. Little parties are got up of afternoons to have chicken-fights, and at times large sums change hands.

[XXVIII-67] Govt has from time to time passed laws to prohibit gaming. Rocha, Cód. Nic., ii. 81-3; La Union de Nic., March 9, 1861; Nic., Gaceta, Jan. 15, 1870; Pan. Star and Herald, March 20, 1886.

[XXVIII-68] Occasionally those who take part in the dangerous amusement receive fatal injuries. Lévy, Nic., 288-94; Squier's Travels, i. 331-3. The following authorities also treat of the character, and manners, and customs of the Nicaraguans. Reichardt, Nic., 80-1, 88-90, 102-25; Heine, Wanderbilder, 96-107, 187-204, passim; De Bow's Rev., xiii. 236-58; Wells' Walker's Exped., 44-79, 84-5, 106-7, 241-2, 422.

[XXVIII-69] 'Whatever may be the future history of Cent. Am., its most important part, in all that requires intelligence, activity, concentration, and force, will be performed by San Salvador.' Squier's Cent. Am., 315.

[XXVIII-70] Aboriginal names of places have been generally preserved; and there are a few towns, exclusively inhabited by Indians, who use their own language among themselves. Squier's Cent. Am., 318-23.

[XXVIII-71] About 50 miles in length, and 20 to 25 miles in breadth, lying between La Libertad and Acajutla.

[XXVIII-72] Nevertheless, in business transactions he is indisposed to trust others.

[XXVIII-73] This garment is elaborately but rudely embroidered about the neck and shoulders with colored thread. It is often laid aside in the country towns. Montgomery's Narr., 98-9; Squier's Cent. Am., 321.

[XXVIII-74] Laferrière, De Paris à Guatém., 211-21.

[XXVIII-75] Upon the death of an infant, all rejoice, dance, and carouse, the parents also taking part, presumably on the belief that it has joined the choir of angels in heaven. If the child is a male one, they paint whiskers and a mustache on its face to make it resemble that of Jesus, and call it a jesusito.

[XXIX-1] A large number of the priests are blacks, and they regard with ill-concealed jealousy the advance of Americans in Cent. Am. Every measure of the liberals to promote foreign immigration meets with opposition on the part of the black priests.

[XXIX-2] Lying between the Rio Roman and Cape or Segovia River, an area of some 15,000 square miles.

[XXIX-3] Their ancestors had favored the French in the squabbles with England, and in 1796 were, by order of the British government, transported en masse, to the number of about 5,000, and at heavy expense, to the then deserted island of Roatan, in the bay of Honduras. They were subsequently invited by the Spanish authorities to the mainland; and aided to found settlements near the port of Trujillo. Since then they have rapidly increased, extending themselves both to the eastward and westward of that port. Squier's Cent. Am., 232.

[XXIX-4] The black Caribs are represented as tall and stout, and more mercurial and vehement than the pure Caribs; the latter are shorter, but powerfully built.

[XXIX-5] Leaving out the dignified and courteous members of the old and wealthy families, the people show a strange mixture of politeness, simplicity, shrewdness, and effrontery, and above all, an indescribably passive indifference of countenance. Wells' Hond., 202-3.

[XXIX-6] It has been said of the Cent. Am. woman, 'she nursed, made tortillas, and died.' Id., 215.

[XXIX-7] The women of this class lead a degraded life. If the man has large means, his mistress has menials under her; if not, she is maid of all work. Bates' Cent. Am., 115.

[XXIX-8] Notwithstanding this lack of education, Cent. Am. women never fail to interest the traveller by the peculiar gentleness and dignity of their demeanor. Wells' Hond., 227-8.

[XXIX-9] 'Sitting at the window in the afternoon and evening to recover from the fatigue of it.' Id., 195.

[XXIX-10] Breakfast bill of fare: boiled rice and beans, salads, bread, butter, cheese, tortillas, coffee and milk, fruit. Dinner: soup, beef, salad, a variety of vegetables. There are other dishes, such as ollas fried with garlic, piccadillo of half-cooked lights, oil, rice, and plantains, baked slices of liver, salchichas or blood puddings with plenty of garlic, catamales filled with bits of fat meat and cheese, boiled meat, broth, etc.; the repast concludes with sweetmeats and coffee. Wines and liquors are generally of poor quality. The rum of the country is the most harmless. Cooking is generally done on an adobe fogon, or range, in a small building behind the dwelling-house. Id., 192-4.

[XXIX-11] The couriers, wearing leathern caites, travel that distance every day, at a gait between a fast walk and a run.

[XXIX-12] Gloves fringed around the cuffs with silver, and a small riding-whip, complete the attire. To ride and dance well are parts of the Central American's education. Id., 201, 227.

[XXIX-13] Religious feasts are common, and the people seem to be close observants of the ceremonies, and yet cannot be said to be as much priest-ridden as other Central Americans.

[XXIX-14] Even manacled prisoners are permitted, under guard, to beg for money to relieve their condition.

[XXIX-15] Good colored servants brought in from abroad soon fall into the indolent habits of the blacks surrounding them. The stranger then finds that his man 'Bob Long has become Don Roberto Longorio.'

[XXIX-16] An official document sets the whole population on the 1st of Jan., 1886, at 1,322,544 souls. Guat., Mem. Sec. Fomento, 1886, annex no. 1.

[XXIX-17] Among those traders are a number of European Spaniards, who are every year joined by some of their relations from the old country.

[XXIX-18] Of mild disposition, good natural talents, aptitude for learning, and lively imagination. Hospitality is one of their virtues. Montgomery's Narr., 157-60.

[XXIX-19] Belly, who wrote before the upsetting of the old conservative régime, says: 'Un population que son beau climat sollicite à l'inertie, et qui sort a peine de la plus abominable éducation religieuse et morale que jamais un peuple ait subie.' A trav. l'Amér. Cent., i. 153-4. Laferrière visited the country some years later, and fully confirms the above. De Paris à Guatém., 263.

[XXIX-20] 'Those of the better class will compare well with any people for good morals, discreet conduct, and admirable behavior.' Min. Hudson's Rept, in U. S. Gov. Doc., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 446.

[XXIX-21] Most of the women smoke, the elder ones cigars, and the young cigarettes. They do it, however, in a pretty and refined manner. Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am., i. 256.

[XXIX-22] 'A natural roving appetite inclines them to favor and to freely indulge such intercourse.' Min. Hudson's Rept, in U. S. Gov. Doc., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 445.

[XXIX-23] Every Ind. village has its own authorities, most of whom are chosen from among the inhabitants.

[XXIX-24] The old system attempted to improve their condition by enacting laws believed to be conducive to that end. Witness clauses of a decree of the constituent assembly of Nov. 8, 1851, giving force to certain laws of 1839, and reviving others of the old Spanish Recop. de Indios, which were intended to prevent the maltreatment of Indians. Guat., Recop. Ley., i. 246, 512-15, 846-53. On the 6th of Sept., 1879, a decree was passed, acknowledging the lamentable condition of ignorance and abjectedness the Indian had been kept in, and providing that at least a portion of them should attend the pub. schools already established in nearly all the departments. Salv., Diario Ofic., Sept. 20, 1879.

[XXIX-25] The German writers Scherzer and Von Tempski, and the American Stephens, have occupied themselves with those people. According to them the inhabitants live isolated, and render no service to Guat. They practise a religion which is a mixture of catholic and heathen rites. The only ladinos allowed to live with them are the priest and his attendants.

[XXIX-26] The towns conquered by the Spaniards did not contain all the Lacandones. According to Pinelo, the Lacandones and Manchés were computed, in 1637, at 100,000. This was subsequent to the invasion of their territory by Quiñones. Squier, Cent. Am., 568-72, gives much information on the subject.

[XXIX-27] Now and then a few of them visit the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, and Campeche to procure tobacco and other things, and suddenly disappear by unknown paths, and never allow strangers to visit them.

[XXIX-28] The eastern Lacandones are tillers of the soil, hunters, and fishermen. Though occasionally baptized by catholic missionaries, and fond of saying prayers, they still adhere to their old heathen worship, and indulge in polygamy. They visit the whites and settled Indians to sell their produce. Berendt's Explor. in Cent. Am., in Smithsonian Rept, 1867, 425.

[XXIX-29] Fine and costly tortoise-shell combs were at one time much used. Women wear hats only when riding on horseback. The Guat. female is fond of embroidered articles, costly fans, rich jewelry, and every other finery. There are other women in the world like them.

[XXIX-30] It being starched into stiff folds, it supplied in some measure the place of a jacket.

[XXIX-31] Wealthy women objected to their female servants wearing other than naguas, and would have none that wore shoes.

[XXIX-32] Such places are convenient, though not agreeable, owing to the variety and abundance of fleas, jiggers, etc. Laferrière, De Paris à Guatém., 267; Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am., i. 163-81.

[XXIX-33] In bull-fights they merely worry and torture the animal, but never kill it in presence of the public.

[XXIX-34] The vice is not prevalent among the Indians who live apart in their villages. During the bathing season in Amatitlan, for instance, the time is spent in gambling, and intrigues between the sexes, and among the visitors are always a number of veritable sharpers. The native generally bears his losses with hardly a sign of impatience. Dunlop's Cent. Am., 152-3; Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am., i. 261, 298-301; Boddam Whetham, Across Cent. Am., 136-8.

[XXIX-35] Barrios, Mensaje, 1876, 55-6; Guat., Mem. Sec. Fomento, 1880, 35-6; 1883, 59-60; 1884, 40-1; 1885, 44-6.

[XXIX-36] Bates' Cent. Am., etc., 110.

[XXIX-37] The fevers of the country are the intermittent, resembling the worst form of fever and ague in the western U. S.; the calentura, which is a type of the same. It is not common in the interior, and yields usually to strong cathartics, followed by quinine, which physicians are wont to administer in heavy doses. Wells' Hond., 547-8. Yellow fever breaks out with more or less virulence some years at the ports, particularly on the Atlantic side; it has occasionally spread to the interior. Diario de Méx., 539-40, 569-71; Amér. Cent. Cie Belge, ii. 48-52; Disturnell's Infl. of Clim., 252; Costa R., Informe Sec. Gobern., 1869, 15; Nic., Gaceta, May 9 to Aug. 8, 1868; Laferrière, De Paris à Guatém., 47-8, and table 444 B. Measles and scarlet fever have also made their appearance epidemically, destroying many lives. Salv., El Siglo, May 28 to Aug. 14, 1851; Id., Diario Ofic., July 31, 1875; Costa R., Mem. Sec. Guerra, etc., 1867, doc. D, 31.

[XXIX-38] Nic. adopted timely precautions to escape it, by having the people vaccinated. Nic., Boletin Ofic., Aug. 2, 1862.

[XXIX-39] Rocha, Cód. Nic., ii. 165; Costa R., Mem. Min. Gobern., 1852-3; Id., 1884, annex A.

[XXIX-40] Elephantiasis is not common, but occasionally found in the upland regions. Only one leg is stricken; the swelling often reaches above the knee. It is considered incurable and fatal. Costa R., Informe Sec. Interior, 1864, 9-10; Nic., Informe Min. Gobern., 1871, 7; Guat., Recop. Ley., Gob. Democ., ii. 21; Wells' Hond., 548.

[XXIX-41] Journ. of a Voy., in Am. Register, iii. 147; Soc. Mex. Geog., Bol., viii. 507; Costa R., Col. Ley., xxiii. 259-63; Id., Mem. Sec. Gobern., 1884, 99-100.

[XXIX-42] But few cases appeared in Hond. down to 1856. Wells' Hond., 549. A malady presenting some of the symptoms of cholera did considerable havoc in Costa R. in 1845, and it was apprehended that it might degenerate into the Asiatic type, but it fortunately did not. In the same state the government, to ward off an expected invasion of the disease on the 9th of Feb., 1849, established a strict quarantine, which was raised on the 9th of April. Nic., Registro Ofic., 107; Costa R., Col. Ley., xi. 14-15, 20.

[XXIX-43] We have seen how previous to and during the Walker war cholera destroyed a conservative army in Managua, and later one from Costa Rica, and how for a long time it hindered military operations. Perez, Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic., 140; Costa R., Mem. Min. Rel., 1856, 9-11; S. F. Herald, Sept. 5, 1855; Id., Bulletin, June 6, 1856; Id., Alta, Oct. 2, 1857; El Tiempo, Aug. 14, Sept. 15, 1857; El Estandarte Nac., Sept. 15, 1857; El Eco Nac., Oct. 1, 1857.

[XXIX-44] Costa R. by timely precautions escaped the infliction. Nic., Gac., Dec. 22, 1866; March 9 to Nov. 9, 1867, passim; Jan. 25, 1868; Id., Decretos, 1867, 50; Id., Mem. Min. Fomento, 1869, 7; Costa R., Mem. Sec. Guerra, etc., 1867, 8, doc. A, 23, D, 31; El Porvenir de Nic., Feb. 18, 1872.

[XXX-1] Thus were established in Salv. the Colegio Seminario, which subsequently assumed the name of Colegio y Universidad del Salvador, in Nic., the Universidad de Leon, and in Guatemala was founded the Academia de Estudios, with which became incorporated the old university of San Cárlos, the Colegio de Abogados, and the Protomedicato, which had existed several years of the colonial period. Squier's Trav. Cent. Am., ii. 390-1; Squier, Compend. Hist. Cent. Am., 36-7; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 22; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 181; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 333; Guat., Recop. Ley., i. 798-806; iii. 11-214. The Colegio de Abogados y Junta Académica de Jurisprudencia had been installed June 5, 1810. Diario de Méx., Sept. 22, 1810; Juarros, Guat., ii., p. vii.

[XXX-2] See laws, official reports, and statements of travellers. Costa R., Col. Ley., iii. 223-6; xi. 158-215; xii. 156; Montúfar, Resúmen Hist., iii. 562-4, 640-1; Ministerial annual reports, 1848-54; El Costaricense, Nov. 10, 17, 1849; Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 46-7; Squier's Cent. Am., 468-9; Wagner, Costa R., 186-8, 219-29; Costa R., Bol. Ofic., Jan. 10, 1856.

[XXX-3] There was a normal school for training teachers, at San José, and institutes for secondary instruction in several cities.

[XXX-4] It was created May 3, 1843, made pontificial in 1853 by Pius IX. Costa R., Col. Ley., viii. 25-8, 121-82; xi. 9-12; xii. 268-75; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 412-14, 419; El Costaricense, Dec. 1, 1849; Wagner, Costa R., 220-3.

[XXX-5] The percentage of each dept given in Costa R., Gaceta, July 11, 1885, suppl. See also Annual Repts of Min. of Pub. Instruc., 1858-83; Wappäus, Mex. und Cent. Am., 359-60.

[XXX-6] Early in 1872 the university of Leon, the former Colegio Tridentino, had but three chairs and 66 alumni, and four classes of secondary instruction attended by 102 pupils; that of Granada had only a chair of law, and seven classes of secondary instruction attended by 160 pupils. In primary instruction, there were at that time only 92 schools for boys and 9 for girls, a number of them private, and one missionary in Cuapa, attended by 3,871 boys and 532 girls, out of a population of 205,500, or say 20 children out of 1,000 inhabitants; only 532 girls out of 18,000 of school age, and 4,000 boys out of 12,000, were receiving instruction. Lévy, Nic., 360-3. Teachers of pub. schools are paid $12 a month and a little extra in larger towns. That state of things was due mainly to the neglect of parents. The funds appropriated for education were constantly tampered with and defrauded; this was acknowledged by the minister of instruction. There were no schools for adults, no professional institutes. As a rule, wealthy families sent their sons to be educated abroad, or at least in Guat. There was in 1873 no scientific course provided with the requisite materials, no laboratories, no museum, no public or private collections, no observatory, nothing; not even a small library. The conclusion to be drawn from the above is that the general intellectual level could not be high.

[XXX-7] 'Fuera de la multitud de causas dependientes del carácter, y del estado social de nuestros pueblos ... no tenemos nuestros idóneos suficientes.' Mensaje, in Costa R., Gaceta, Feb. 4, 1885.

[XXX-8] The newspapers often contain fine poetical compositions by native writers.

[XXX-9] The following authorities contain further details: The official reports of ministers from 1850 to the present time; Nic., Dec. y Acuerdos, from 1851 down; Id., Gaceta, Oct. 14, 1848; March 31, 1849; and for years 1862 to 1874 passim, and others.

[XXX-10] Even in the dark days, when her affairs were in the hands of despotic rulers, education was not neglected as much as might have been expected.

[XXX-11] Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 52-3, 270.

[XXX-12] The Am. min., Jan. 8, 1872, says: 'Primary instruction is expanding yearly in its numbers and area.' Min. Biddle's Desp., in U. S. Gov. Doc., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 511-12.

[XXX-13] At San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel.

[XXX-14] In 1875 there were 333 primary schools for boys, 50 for girls, 23 mixed, 29 high schools, one normal for males and one for females, one telegraphic, one lithographic, and one academy of fine arts. The appropriations for teachers in 1874 were nearly $69,000. It must be also remarked that many are teaching without compensation to benefit their country. Secondary and higher instruction are free. The primary is uniform, gratuitous, and obligatory. Laferrière, De Paris à Guatém., 202, 206, 282.

[XXX-15] The press, though not fully developed, has, nevertheless, given at times evidences of ability, when not hampered by restrictions on the part of would-be despotic rulers. Salv., Gac., Dec. 21, 1849; Dec. 5, 1877; Salv., Diario Ofic., Jan. 2, 1875, to Oct. 23, 1879, passim; Pan. Star and Herald, March 4, May 10, 1875; Sept. 18, 1882; Sept. 9 and 18, 1885.

[XXX-16] Montúfar gives the causes, speaking on the subject for 1838. Resúmen Hist., iii. 278-9.

[XXX-17] In chemistry, engineering, the higher mathematics, they are deficient, and cannot compete with the universities of Nic., Salv., or Guat. They are, in fact, but little in advance of the common schools in the U. S. Still, they give promise of greater usefulness and advancement in the future. Squier's Cent. Am., 267-8.

[XXX-18] Hond. has furnished more than her quota of the distinguished men of Cent. Am.; among them soldiers, statesmen, and orators. Wells' Hond., 549.

[XXX-19] Such as exist with only a feeble life are generally engaged in acrimonious political wranglings.

[XXX-20] President Soto in his message of 1877 enumerates the improvements made, but confesses that they do not satisfy his aspirations. Salv., Gaceta Ofic., June 19, 20, 1877.

[XXX-21] In 1881 about $64,000, and in 1882 nearly $74,000, were expended for public instruction. A number of teachers arrived early in 1883 from Europe, as also a complete outfit for a scientific college. Pan. Star and Herald, March 23, 1883.

[XXX-22] At the end of 1882 there were 811 primary schools; namely, 528 elementary for boys and 226 for girls, 5 complementary for boys, 3 for girls; one Sunday school for working-women, and 48 night schools for artisans, etc. This was an increase of 26 over 1881. The attendance was of 26,773 boys and 10,696 girls, an increase of 2,166 of both sexes over 1881. Early in 1884, the primary schools were 844, including 47 night schools for men, one for women, one Sunday school for women, and 16 mixed schools. The attendance had also greatly increased. The buildings confiscated from the church in 1872 were applied to education. There were likewise several private and municipal schools. Barrios, Mensaje, Sept. 11, 1876, 33-8; B. Whetham's Across Cent. Am., 39; U. S. Gov. Doc., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 44, Sess. I, i. pt i. 137-8, 148, 175; Guat., Recop. Ley., Gob. Democ., ii. 81-192, passim; Belly, A trav. l'Amér. Cent., i. 131-4; Salv., Gaceta, Aug. 18, Oct. 7, Nov. 8, 1876; Feb. 11 to Nov. 27, 1877, passim; Id., Diario Ofic., Aug. 15, 1878; Guat., Mem. Sec. Instruc. Púb., 1880-4; Reichardt, Cent. Am., 57, 227; La Estrella de Pan., Jan. 10, 1884; Batres, Sketch of Guat., 19-20, 40-72, passim; El Guatemalteco, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, Dec. 24, 1884; Conkling's Guide, 337, 341.

[XXX-23] Pan. Ev'g Telegram, May 26, 1886.

[XXX-24] The academy has pupils who pay their own expenses, and are not obliged to join the military service; and others placed therein by the govt, and intended to be commissioned as officers of the army. Pan. Star and Herald, Jan. 11, 1877; Guat., Mem. Sec. Guerra, 1882-4; Guat., Recop. Ley., ii. 692-700; Id., Id., Gob. Democ., i. 141-54; ii. 125-8; Salv., Diario Ofic., Sept. 19, 1877; July 5, 1878.

[XXX-25] Besides having a school of drawing, painting, and modelling, and a night-school for artisans, it is provided with a cabinet of physics, with the view of establishing a school of chemistry applicable to industry. The museum installed in 1866 is every day enriched with new acquisitions.

[XXX-26] 1872-4, paid by municipalities, $16,051; by national govt, $112,048; 1879-83, paid by municipalities, to whom had been ceded the urban tax, $36,242; by the national treasury, $1,773,899. It seems that the total amount paid for pub. instruction from 1860 to 1870 had not much exceeded $60,000. Guat., Mem. Sec. Fomento, 1885, annex 12, table 16.

[XXX-27] Under the former régime books objectionable to the church, for sustaining liberal ideas on social or religious topics, were placed, by a decree of the national assembly of Oct. 16, 1841, in the list of the forbidden; and the church was authorized to proceed against them. Guat., Recop. Ley., iii. 286-7.

[XXX-28] This was made evident in several acts. The clergy were daily abused; the liberal leaders constantly inveighing against their fanaticism and intolerance, and ridiculing many things which the populace looked upon as sacred. Friars were held up in a multitude of anecdotes, and otherwise, as so many destructive insects. El Liberal, nos. 28-30, 41, 45, 49. The arts and objects of priestcraft were exposed to ridicule, contempt, and reprobation. A play called 'La Inquisicion por dentro' had a great run, and brought that institution into effectual and lasting odium. Squier's Travels Cent. Am., i. 372. The inquisition of Mex. had had jurisdiction over Cent. Am. After its final abolishment, the king of Spain decreed, March 9, 1820, that all cases pending before its courts should be referred to the ordinaries for determination. The inquisitors failed to obey, and removed from the archives of Guat. all the cases pending there, alleging complicity on the part of the archbishop. The matter was laid before the córtes by Deputy Mendez of Salv. May 14, 1821. Dispos. Var., iii. 152; Fernando VII., Decretos, 285-6; Córtes, Diario, xviii. 1821, May 14, 6.

[XXX-29] One on pastorals; another required the archbishop's appointments of parish priests to be previously submitted for confirmation to the chief of the state. La Tertulia Patriótica, no. 4. By law of Nov. 8, 1824, the clergy were deprived of their privilege to import goods free of duties; another of June 9, 1826, reduced the tithes to one half. El Liberal, no. 36. Others of May 3, and June 9, 1826, gave natural children the right to inherit either extestamento or abintestato, and those of ordained priests and professed nuns were placed in the same category; one forbidding, Sept. 1, 1826, the prelates of religious orders to recognize obedience to or hold relations with their respective generals in Spain; and finally, the famous decrees of June 10 and July 20, 1826, forbidding the admission into convents or nunneries of persons under 23 years, or to profession any under 25. Marure, Bosq. Rev. Cent. Am., i. 244-6; Guat., Gaceta, Feb. 16, 1856; Squier's Cent. Am., 265-7.

[XXX-30] Such writings appeared in El Indicador, nos. 90, 94, 95, 149, 152.

[XXX-31] This was almost unanimously sanctioned by the people, and at once carried into effect. Rocha, Cód. Nic., i. 373; ii. 373-80; Guat., Recop. Ley., i. 273; Id., Montúfar, Reseña Hist., i. 156-8; Squier, Compend. Hist. Cent. Am., 61; Squier's Trav. Cent. Am., i. 370-1; ii. 390-4; Thompson's Guat., 145-50; Stout's Nic., 149-51; Crowe's Gospel, 123-32, 135; Reichardt, Cent. Am., 39; Cal. Overland Monthly, xiv. 160-1; Dunlop's Cent. Am., 178, 181, 186; Nic., El Porvenir, Oct. 22, 1871; Feb. 16, 1873.

[XXX-32] Under this law Fred. Crowe, an English protestant missionary, and the author of the Gospel in Central America, resided several years in Guat., till he was driven away by the serviles.

[XXX-33] Pursuant to which Father Delgado was chosen and acted as bishop of San Salvador, though without confirmation by the pope, for about four years. He was never confirmed, but retained as vicar-general, under the archb. of Guat. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 13-17; Marure, Bosq Hist. Rev. Cent. Am., 196-9, and Docs, xviii.-xix., xxx.-xxxii.; Id., Efem., 14; Mem., Hist. Rev. Cent. Am., 32-7; Cabildo, Ecles. Informe, 54-5; Squier's Trav. Cent. Am., i. 370-1; Niles' Reg., xxix. 39.

[XXX-34] Guat., Recop. Ley., iii. 273, 294-324; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iii. 522-4; iv. 146, 205-7, 552; Crosby's Statem., MS., 91, 105-7, 110-11; Squier's Cent. Am., 515-16; Belly, Nic., i. 162-3.

[XXX-35] Infidelity spread extensively among the mestizos, and the white people also, so that the requirements of the church became constantly neglected. Obnoxious books were in the hands of all classes. Some of the more candid priests avowed deistical and atheistical notions. Crowe's Gospel, 256-7.

[XXX-36] A large number were charged with libidinous practices; even unnatural crimes were among the number. Excesses in eating and drinking, gambling, rioting, and bad language were quite common with them. Exorbitant fees, and extorting personal services, and grinding the poor were of daily occurrence. And yet the offenders were not punished, nor even suspended.

[XXX-37] At Habana, Cuba, whose diocese he had charge of for many years, never resigning the see of Guatemala, though he repeatedly refused to return thereto. His remains were taken there, however, by the Spanish war schooner Polka, and interred in Santa Teresa church, June 1846, with the utmost pomp of church and state. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., v. 12-13, 19-25.

[XXX-38] The Marquis José de Aycinena, who had expected the appointment, was balked in his ambition, but was made bishop of Trajanapolis in part. infid.; he died Feb. 17, 1865. A few months earlier, Aug. 23, 1864, occurred the death of another prelate, a native of Guat., named José M. Barrutia y Cróquer, bishop of Camaco in part. infid. Nic., Gaceta, Sept. 24, 1864; March 18, 1865. Antonio Larrazábal, who had also been made a bishop in part. infid., had died Dec. 2, 1853. Costa R., Gaceta, Jan. 7, 1854; Belly, A trav. l'Amér. Cent., i. 136-7.

[XXX-39] Nic., Gaceta, Feb. 16, 1867; Pan. Mercantile Chronicle, Feb. 17, 1867.

[XXX-40] Piñol died at Habana, June 24, 1881; Urruela's demise was on June 8, 1873, at Leon. Nic., Gaceta, June 14, 1873; Voz de Méj., July 28, 1881.

[XXX-41] In 1872 the Capuchin friars of La Antigua, who were natives of Spain, were sent out of the country; all convents of friars were closed, and the property of the several orders was confiscated. In 1873 the consolidation of mortmain property, proceeding from pious endowments, capellanías, and legacies to the church and benevolent establishments, was decreed. In 1874 nunneries were closed, and the confiscation of their estates went on. The government agreed to allow pensions to the nuns and native friars for their support. At the same time all communities of religions of either sex under any form whatever were forbidden forever. The fuero eclesiástico was abolished, and the most unlimited freedom of religion proclaimed. Civil marriage was declared legal, and where the parties desired a religious ceremony the former must precede it. Ecclesiastics were forbidden to appear with frocks or other official insignia in public out of the church. Cemeteries were secularized. Barrios, Mensaje, Sept. 11, 1876; Guat., Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ., i. 159-61, 192-6; ii. 13-14, 23-7, 58, 64-5, 205; El Porvenir de Nic., Apr. 20, 27, 1873; U. S. Gov. Doc., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 99-101, 106, 147; Pan. Star and Herald, Oct. 23, 1873; Salv., Diario, Dec. 21, 1878; Guat., Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just., 1880, 2-5; 1882, 11-12.

[XXX-42] In 1883 a protestant chapel was established in the capital, in charge of Rev. Mr Hill. Pan. Star and Herald, March 23, 1883.

[XXX-43] There had been before him, from 1539 to 1810, twenty bishops, the immediate predecessor of Barranco being Manuel Julian Rodriguez, who ruled till 1810. Bernardo Pavon was appointed but died before his consecration. Juarros, Guat., i. 181; Mex., Compend. Concilio III. en Mex., 418-21; Morelli, Fast. Nov. Orb., 107.

[XXX-44] Nic., Corr. Ist., Dec. 1, 1849; Guat., Gac., Nov. 30, 1849.

[XXX-45] Formerly there were convents of Franciscan, Merced, and Carmelite orders.

[XXX-46] The church has no property whatever; the priests are generally poor, and entirely dependent on fees, and on contributions of the devout for festivals, etc.

[XXX-47] Wells' Hond., 551-2, 555; Wappäus, Mex. und Cent. Am., 305.

[XXX-48] The papal bull to erect the diocese of San Salvador is dated 4th day of the Kalends of Oct., 1842. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 171-85.

[XXX-49] He was a strong, finely formed, and pretentious individual; a count palatine, and attendant on the pontifical throne, one who had a right to be preceded by a tintinnabulum. He was not like the poor, meek man who was born in a stable at Bethlehem.

[XXX-50] Id., Reseña Hist., v. 649, 661-2; Salv., Gac., July 29, 1853; Id., Diario Ofic., Nov. 4, 1875; Nic., Corr. Ist., May 23, 1851.

[XXX-51] Salv., Diario Ofic., Aug. 8, 13, 1875.

[XXX-52] The most noted were: Friar Benito de Baldonado, 1620-9, who founded two hospitals; he died in Leon; Diego Morsillo Rubio de Auñon, 1704-9, who being afterward transferred to La Paz, was twice viceroy and captain-general of Peru; Isidro Marin de Bullon y Figueroa, 1746-8, who began the construction of the cathedral of Leon, and died in Guatemala; Estévan Lorenzo de Tristan, 1775-83; in 1780 he finished and inaugurated the cathedral, and it is added that through his exertions Cent. Am. obtained the privilege of free trade; José Antonio de la Huerta Casso, 1795-1804, notable for his efforts in developing education. Montúfar makes severe comments on some of the prelates. Reseña Hist., iv. 136-9. Nicolás García Jerez, a Dominican, became bishop in 1810, and figured prominently in the revolutionary period. He had to emigrate in 1824 to Guatemala, where he died in 1825. Vicar Cuadra was guardian till 1851, when under a reconstruction of the diocese, Costa R. having been detached, Jorge Viteri y Ungo was transferred to it from Salvador. He died July 25, 1853. The see had no bishop till the appointment of Bernardo Piñol y Aycinena. It took place in Nov. 1855, and the papal bulls reached Granada in 1856, where, owing to Walker's war, they were kept in the parish church, and finally destroyed with the city. Piñol was consecrated in Guat. July 17, 1859, and performed his functions till Sept. 14, 1868, when he departed for Guat. as archb. During his rule Manuel Ulloa was made bishop of Lemira, in part. infid., and coadjutor; he was made bishop of Nic. in 1871, and resigned the office in 1883. El Costaricense, Nov. 10, 1849; Salv., Gaceta, March 8, 1850; Aug. 12, 1853; Pio IX., Carta; Squier's Trav. Cent. Am., i. 391; Nic., Corr. Ist., Feb. 6, March 7, June 20, Dec. 12, 1850; Id., Gac., Aug. 13, Sept. 3, 1853, Dec. 16, 1865; Jan. 6, Apr. 21, 1866; Id., Semanal Nic., Oct. 10, 1872; Id., Boletin Ofic., Apr. 12, 1862; Id., Dec. y Acuerdos, 1859, ii. 162; 1863, 215; 1865, 136; El Rol, March 15, 1855; Decreto sobre la bula de S. S.; Perez, Mem. Rev. Nic., i. 8-9; El Porvenir de Nic., Feb. 25, 1872; Levy, Nic., 62-6; Pan. Star and Herald, July 2, 1883.

[XXX-53] In 1871 a number of jesuits expelled from Guat. managed to get into the country, and were allowed to remain several years, but were finally sent away. Details have been given in a former chapter. In 1872 several friars expelled from other parts tried to enter the country, but were not permitted to stay. El Porvenir de Nic., Oct. 1, 1871, to Feb. 16, 1873, passim; Nic., Semanal Nic., June 18, 1872; Id., Mem. Min. Gobern., 1875, 23-4; 1883, 25-6, annex B, 27-8, F, 1-4.

[XXX-54] For the seminary $2,000; the bishop $3,000; the chapter and other ecclesiastics $4,158; music $1,000; other expenses about $4,000. The chapter consists of dean, archdeacon, chancellor, three canons, and six or seven other officials. The church gets the first-fruits from farmers. Tithes have been abolished since 1862. 300 or 400 priests without parishes depend entirely on fees. The cathedral has no valuables, having been sacked several times. Nic., Boletin Ofic., Dec. 6, 1856; March 1, 1862; Union, Nic., March 2, 1861; Nic., Dec. y Acuerdos, 1857-8, 261-5; Id., Gac., Aug. 6, 1870; Lévy, Nic., 383-4.

[XXX-55] See treaty with France of Apr. 11, 1859.

[XXX-56] Appointments of parish priests, and publications of papal bulls or briefs, and decrees of ecclesiastical councils must first obtain an exequatur from the president of the republic. Parish priests before assuming their offices must take the oath to support the constitution, and to do no act against the nation's independence or the public peace. Nic., Mem. Min. Fomento, 1869, 13-16; 1871, 9-10; Id., Mem. Min. Rel., 1871, 7-10, 25-8; Id., Gaceta, May 30, 1868; Oct. 29, Nov. 5, 1870.

[XXX-57] Anselmo Llorente y Lafuente was the first called to fill the position of bishop of San José de Costa Rica, April 10, 1851. He had not been long in office when he tried to collect tithes on coffee, but failed, and his course greatly displeased the people and lowered their regard for the church. The matter was finally settled by a concordat entered into at Rome, Oct. 2, 1852, and tithes were declared abolished. He died in 1872; and the government soon after proposed a successor, who was not approved of by the Roman curia. Finally, Oct. 11, 1879, the government nominated Bernard August Thiel, a native of Germany, and professor of the university of Costa Rica, for the office, and he was confirmed by the pope Feb. 27, 1880. During the vacancy the see was under the guardianship of the bishop of Abydos, in part. infid. Costa R., Col. Ley., v. 155-60; Marure, Bosq. Hist. Rev. Cent. Am., 208; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 247-9; Costa R., Mem. Min. Rel., 1851, 1-2, 10-12; 1854, 11-12; Id., Informe Sec. Rel., 1872, 19-20; 1873, 19; 1874, 12; 1880, 19-20; Molina, Bosq. Costa R., 63, 111-12; El Siglo, July 18, 1851.

[XXX-58] For the bishop $3,000, the ecclesiastical chapter $3,000, and the Colegio Tridentino $3,000. Montúfar, Reseña Hist., ii. 207; Costa R., Mem. Min. Rel., 1859, 11; Id., Gac. Gob., July 16, 23, 30, 1853; Hond., Gac. Ofic., Jan. 24, 1853, suppl.; Salv., Gac., Aug. 12, 1853; Guat., Gac., Sept. 16, Oct. 14, 1853; Astaburuaga, Cent. Am., 49-50.

[XXX-59] Costa R., Mem. Sec. Rel., 1884, 31.

[XXX-60] The clergy have, indeed, lost much of their influence. The mode of life of the majority of them cannot inspire respect. Letter from Costa R. by a British consul, quoted in Squier's Cent. Am., 468-9; Wappäus, Mex. und Cent. Am., 360. Laferrière, writing for 1873, gives a discreditable picture of the church, its priests and feasts. De Paris à Guatém., 56.

[XXX-61] There is a protestant church and cemetery in San José. The government cordially upholds the liberal laws on the subject of religion. Costa R., Mem. Sec. Rel., 1884, 32.

[XXX-62] His salary was also suspended. Costa R., Mem. Sec. Rel., 1885, 17.

[XXX-63] Of whom 39 received their offices during the colonial period, the last one being Friar Higinio Duran, of the order of Mercy and a native of Lima. He took possession in 1818, and died in Chepo on the 22d of Oct., 1823. This bishop was one of the signers of the declaration of independ. of the Isthmus in 1821. His successors were Manuel Vasquez, Juan J. Cabarcas Gonzalez, Juan F. del R. Manfiedo y Ballestas, Friar Eduardo Vasquez, who died in Rome, Jan. 2, 1870, Ignacio Antonio Parra, who took possession June 3, 1871. Hernaez, Extracto del Libro de la Comp. de Jesus, in Maldonado, Asuntos Polít de Pan., MS., 34-5; Pan., Col. Docs., MS., nos. 125-6; Pan. Docs.; Montúfar, Reseña Hist., iv. 344; Nic., Boletin Ofic., Nov. 1, 1862; Pan., Boletin Ofic., March 4, 1869; Id., Gaceta, June 6, 1871. Parra held the office only a few years, and was succeeded by Telésforo Paúl, who occupied it till Dec. 1884, when he repaired to Bogotá, his native city, to fill that archepiscopal see. The assembly of the state on the 22d of Dec., 1884, adopted a resolution recognizing his efforts to promote harmony, and appointed a committee to escort him as far as Barranquilla. La Estrella de Pan., Jan. 1, 1885; El Cronista (Pan.), Jan. 3, 1885.

[XXX-64] Bidwell's Isth. Pan., 242. The congress of Nueva Granada in 1837 fixed the bishop's salary at $4,000. N. Granada, Registro Ofic., 21.

[XXX-65] Originally there were 11 churches, 4 convents of friars, one nunnery, a cathedral, and one ecclesiastical college established by the government of Old Colombia under a rector, vice-rector, and assistant, with a sufficient revenue. A law of New Granada provided for the sale at auction of all property that had formerly belonged to the jesuits not required for national use. Pan., Crón. Ofic., Aug. 5, 1852. Stories are related of buried treasures having been disinterred in after years by jesuit agents, from the ground of their old house, and from the orchard of T. M. Feuillet. These stories bear some semblance of truth. See Memoranda, in Maldonado, Apuntes, MS., 36 et seq.

[XXX-66] The bishops in the exercise of their functions, and administration of church property, had the assistance of the civil authorities, who carried out their orders without questioning them.

[XXX-67] Every New Granadan or Colombian assigned, to the prejudice of his heirs, a certain amount to the church for masses and other supposed benefits it could do to his soul. Successive descendants followed the example. The priests often threatened the dying with the penalties of hell if they did not purchase their salvation. Clerical intolerance knew no limits.

[XXX-68] Excepting only cathedrals, the chief church of each parish, and the sacred vessels and ornaments. Maldonado, Asuntos Polít. Pan., MS., 3-5, 15, 17.

[XXX-69] The bishop of Panamá left, and his priests followed his example one by one. Panamá was thus left without a priest; the dead had to be buried without the offices of a minister; for more than a year the churches had no bell-tolling or officiating minister. An English catholic missionary, passing to San Francisco, ventured to say mass and baptize in private. He was arrested, though finally allowed to embark. Bidwell's Isth. Pan., 238-43.

[XXX-70] The laws were modified in May 1864. The govt reserved the right of inspection, but made the oath of submission obligatory on the chief of the church having authority as such. Bulls or orders emanating from any one residing in a foreign country could not be published or enforced without first obtaining permission from the national executive. Pan., Boletin Ofic., Jan. 16, 1868.

[XXX-71] Under Mosquera's decrees when he was dictator, the few nuns—four aged and one young—occupying the convent of La Concepcion in Panamá were made to abandon it in Sept. 1862. Nic., Boletin Ofic., Oct. 4, 1862. These women would not forsake the cloister, but sought an asylum in Lima. With tearful eyes they exiled themselves from their home, and from friends, many of whom had received their education from them. Their departure caused no little feeling in the pub. heart. Maldonado, Asuntos Polít. Pan., MS., 18.

[XXX-72] Dec. 15, 1868, a charter was granted by the state govt to a protestant church association. Pan., Boletin Ofic., Feb. 18, 1869.

[XXXI-1] Some of the alcaldes mayores had in 1810 only $300 allowed them yearly, others $500, and the highest paid received $1,200. The system did not recommend itself. Guat., Apunt., 65-71. There was also a consulado or tribunal of commerce established in Guat. April 30, 1794. Juarros' Stat. and Comm. Hist. Guat., 142-3.