The chief object of rational clothing is to obtain porosity. All underwear as well as outer coverings must be made out of some porous substance which will in no way check the perspiration from the body or the evaporation of such perspiration, and which will at the same time allow of a free passage of air to all parts of the body.
First, we will discuss the question as to the nature of the underwear which is most appropriate for keeping ourselves in a healthy condition.
Wool is the most suitable material for warmth for underclothing, as it is a bad conductor of heat and can therefore best retain the natural heat of the body. It follows, therefore, that this is the best for aged persons to use.
In old age, especially when very advanced, less natural heat is produced in the body. On account of the degenerative changes of the small capillaries the surface of the body is not so well provided with the heating element, which is the blood. At the same time, on account of the loss in elasticity of the musculature, the skin of an aged person contracts less readily from cold than does the skin of younger people; thus, while on the one hand less warmth is produced, on the other hand more warmth may be given off, a due consideration of which leads to the logical conclusion that all aged persons had best wear woolen underclothing.
Woolen underwear, though the best to retain the warmth of the body, has, on the other hand, very serious drawbacks. Wool possesses the great advantage of easily absorbing the perspiration of the body; it can, in fact, absorb about 40 per cent. of the moisture, by weight, without becoming so saturated as to be noticeable; but at the same time it gives off this moisture again very slowly, necessitating the changing at once of such damp covering.
The greatest drawback to wool, however, is that it soon loses its porosity after it has been washed, for then it shrinks and its meshes contract, and in consequence the material is no longer porous; while in this condition it does not freely give off the moisture, but retains it, the aëration of the skin is seriously hindered, and the products of perspiration are not gotten rid of.
Everybody knows what a disagreeable feeling is produced by keeping on such underwear after it has become dampened by perspiration, and this is due to the prevention of the dissemination of the exhalations from the body. Such disadvantages to the wearer of woolen underclothing may possibly be discounted by making such underwear with large meshes; but even in this case it is not easy to prevent the loss of porosity after washing. It is therefore advisable to wear a large meshed linen garment next the skin under the woolen underclothing; there will thus be a cushion of air between the skin and the woolen garment; and linen also has a great affinity for absorbing moisture and rapidly giving it off again.
All kinds of underwear, whether of wool or other material, should be loose about the body. It is a great mistake to have it too tight. There should always be a considerable layer of air between the clothing and the skin. This layer is warmed by the blood at the surface of the body, and as air is a bad conductor of heat, even in the case of underwear not so thick as wool, if such clothing is worn somewhat loosely about the body and is porous, we shall not feel cold. The porosity of the tissue permits the entrance of air, and such tissues, with air in their pores, are abstracting a minimum of heat from the body, though such pores in the tissue allow for the free passage and exit of the harmful exhalations and evaporations from the body.
From the foregoing it follows that socks which do not fit too tightly but fairly loosely, and which are made of porous material, such as good wool, will also be the warmest. It is quite unnecessary to adopt heavy double socks which fill up all the space in the shoes; as a matter of fact in such a case we may have colder feet than if we wore light porous good woolen socks that do not fit too tightly.
Linen possesses the great advantage that it easily absorbs moisture and easily gives it off again, but as it is not such a bad conductor of heat as wool, and freely gives off heat, it may most advantageously be utilized in warm weather, and also in winter if worn under the other woolen garments.
Linen is superior to wool in so far as the matter of cleaning it is concerned, as it can be washed much more thoroughly than wool, which easily retains dust and dirt. Linen is one of the most porous substances for underwear.
Ramie is a material made from a tropical plant, the Bæhmeria Nivea, and has lately come much into use. It readily absorbs the moisture from the skin and does not retain it as long as does wool, but rapidly gives it off again. It also does not abstract warmth so much as linen, and next to wool is the warmest material for underwear. The drawbacks to it, however, are that it is too heavy and does not last long. Silk underwear also retains the warmth, and also very easily absorbs moisture; but it is too expensive for ordinary use, and can readily be spoilt by indifferent washing, unless the most expensive quality is used.
Of all the various materials for use as underwear possibly cotton has the greatest average advantages. It gives off the moisture it has absorbed from the skin, although not quite so efficaciously as does linen. According to James Paton it absorbs moisture equally well as linen; but Pettenkoffer is of a different opinion, as in his view cotton does not absorb the moisture from the skin as readily as does linen.
The greatest advantage, however, of cotton over all other kinds of material (except perhaps ramie) for underwear is its porosity. It is about the most porous material there is, especially if in the course of manufacture the maker takes particular care in selecting the very best cotton; it does not shrink like wool, and therefore does not lose its porosity in the same way when washed.
When cotton is so manufactured as to present the greatest possible porosity, it has also the great advantage of being almost as warm as wool, which is due to the fact that air can enter freely everywhere and remain in the interstices of the material. It has already been mentioned that air is a bad conductor of heat, so that cotton underwear of good quality retains the warmth of the body and at the same time allows a free exit for the exhalations of the skin. If, therefore, cotton be prepared from the best possible material, and manufactured in such a manner as to obtain the greatest amount of porosity, i.e., when it is loosely woven, it can compete successfully with wool as material for warm underwear; it is, therefore, quite an erroneous view to hold, as so many do, that cotton is very different in this respect from wool; everything depends upon the quality and the manner in which it is manufactured.
According to the researches of Sir William Thompson[235] there is practically no difference between wool, cotton, and linen in regard to their capacity as conductors of heat. Nevertheless we ourselves still believe that in winter weather, or when there are cold northern winds, wool is best, especially for the aged. This same holds good also for those younger persons who catch cold easily.
In order to keep warm in winter it is, however, necessary that the cotton material should be of a certain thickness, besides being of the best quality and of the best make. As already mentioned it is of the utmost importance that the underwear should not fit too closely around the body, but that there should always be a layer of warm air between the skin and the garment. Instead of the present custom of wearing close-fitting trousers it would be much more beneficial to adopt the very large loose linen trousers that are worn in certain countries, such as Hungary. When once accustomed to such, and especially in the case of the younger generation, they can readily be worn also in winter time. Then, possibly, porous cotton can take the place of linen, although many people may feel just as warm in porous linen underwear; or we could possibly follow the example of an English gentleman who told me he never wore any underdrawers at all.
In many European countries women, especially of the lower classes, wear no undergarments on their legs at all. In healthy women such a custom may be of great advantage, as it permits of the free passage of air and the elimination of the perspiration from the skin, being in effect a continuous free-air bath for the lower parts of the body.
It is not so necessary to keep the lower extremities, except the feet, warm (provided that the feet are made warm by the constant motion of their muscles), as we do not need to be so well protected there as on the upper parts of the body; we also feel the cold less in these parts, which we can all appreciate if we are in the habit of walking much and not sitting about all day.
Before putting on clean underwear we must be careful to ascertain that it has been thoroughly aired and is quite dry, for it happens in more cases than one knows of that the linen arrives from the laundry quite damp, although apparently it appears and feels dry. After having caught cold each time I changed my linen, after having perspired, I had the idea to put my vest over an electric lamp, and was surprised to see a cloud of moisture arise from it. As moisture readily absorbs the warmth of the body, we can therefore easily lose too much warmth and thus catch cold. Before putting on clean linen it is also advisable to rub the body with a brush (or rough towel) until the skin glows, and the linen itself should of course be put into a hot-air cupboard or be aired before a stove or fire, by which means many colds will be prevented; and these precautions are particularly necessary in all cases after free perspiration, in which latter case also a bath is very desirable before putting on our clean linen. It is of primary importance to change underwear every day, so as not to leave the products of perspiration on the skin for several days (see chapters on the hygiene of the skin and kidneys through perspiration).
We will now offer a few remarks on the subject of white linen. We should not wear starched linen shirts, as they are less permeable to the air. In lieu of these, porous linen shirts are advisable, or any other kind of soft and porous material, without a starched front. The use of starched shirts should be confined to dinner parties and social functions.
The most absurd part of our linen outfit is unquestionably that instrument of torture we wear as a yoke around our neck, preventing a free circulation through our most important arteries and throttling one of our most important organs—the thyroid gland. This we know as the “starched collar,” without which we must not appear in decent society. It is in any or all of its present shapes an unhealthy article of clothing, but especially so when, from foolishness, it is worn standing high up to the chin, keeping away the air from the neck and hindering free circulation. Its bad effects upon the thyroid have already been referred to in the chapter on the hygiene of the thyroid gland. It would be more reasonable to wear a low collar, turned down, and of soft linen, as worn by our forefathers. Women may have this privilege, but, sad to say, they do not avail themselves of it, but instead, in many instances, cover their necks, and even more than their neck, by impermeable materials. Yet the neck is one of the parts of the human frame where many sudorific glands are situated and where we perspire freely. These parts especially should not be enclosed by clothing; neither should the armpits and the toes of the feet, for here the sudorific glands of the body are very numerous. Yet we wear the most impermeable materials, such as leather, and often indeed thick leather, and horribile dictu! even rubbers, very often, on these important organs.
The outer garments should also be made, after careful consideration, to afford the greatest amount of porosity. It would be the height of hygienic triumph to wear clothes made to allow of the free inlet of wholesome sunlight. Gray garments are, therefore, the best, and next to this blue should be greatly preferred to dark colors.
The overcoat should never be too heavy nor too warm; as a general rule, we should never wear clothes warmer than the temperature at the time requires, always being guided by the thermometer and not by the calendar. It is much better to be clad too lightly than too warmly, for we thus avoid perspiring and thereby catching cold; or, in other words, if clad simply lightly the likelihood of our taking cold is less than when we are too warmly clothed, for then we also perspire less freely. It may be that we shall more readily feel cold, but, fortunately, the sensation of feeling cold does not imply catching cold. In fact, when lightly clad we feel much more inclined to take brisk exercise. Then we feel warm, and, as we shall show in the chapter on exercise, more blood is sent to the periphery of the body and the general nutrition of the skin is increased. Naturally, when we are lightly clad we do not sit about without moving, but we endeavor to create a reaction in the skin by brisk exercise. Englishmen, and especially Scotchmen, rarely wear an overcoat, never sleep in a warmed room, and rarely ever catch cold, which is certainly much more prevalent in countries with overheated houses, as in America, and where the people are more accustomed to ride in the street cars (also heated) than to walk.
Catching cold is best obviated by hardening the body against the influence of cold, and this is best done by a continual aëration of the skin, and by means of cold baths, commenced in a judicious manner. We should become accustomed to permit the entrance of air as frequently as possible to the whole surface of the body, which we can do by remaining stark naked in our room for only a few moments several times a day, as already advocated in the chapter on the hygiene of the skin. But still more important is free access to the air, even though cold, if we desire to be immune against colds. Most people who do catch cold contract it first in the head, especially after being in a state of perspiration.
The frontal and temporal parts of the head are very well provided with sudorific glands, and it is therefore most unreasonable to prevent free air access by a warm covering. It is also unnecessary, because Nature has already provided these parts with a natural covering, viz.: the hair, which, with the skull, is intended for the adequate protection of our most delicate organ, the special construction of which places us above all other animal creation.
That young men with abundance of hair should wear heavy head coverings is extremely unreasonable. It would be a far more healthy custom to go without a hat, and thus preserve for a much longer period this natural ornament to the head. At the same time we would perspire less in the head and thus be less liable to take cold. By continuing this practice, as is customary among the boys of a certain English school (The Blue Coat School), the scalp of the head will become so much hardened against climatic influences that we should be able to go out with uncovered head even in cold weather. As, however, not all our neighbors and acquaintance are keenly interested in the postulates of health and long life they may laugh at first, but afterward they will themselves be converted by the advantages of such a custom and will follow our example.
Those whose scalp has become bald or only scantily covered with hair, by excluding from the same too much air or by reason of disease, may not so readily stand the effect of the cold, and for such a head gear may be necessary, in which case the preference should be given to soft and very light felt hats, and not to those made of hard material, which prevent the circulation of the blood through the scalp and thus kill the roots of the hair.
Those who are slaves to the prejudices of their short-sighted brethren may wear their hat when in their company or in the streets, but by all means take it off at other times, and especially when in the woods or in the fields.
It is a singular anomaly that the English, who in many questions of hygiene, as by conducting their sports in the open air, stand at the head of all nations, yet obstinately stick to their tall hats and long black coats in the warmest summer weather, sacrificing health and comfort to social prejudices. How long will Bacon’s nation persist in such a custom?[236]
Other parts of the body richly provided with sudorific glands are the feet. This must logically make it obligatory for all who wish strictly to follow the rules of health and long life not to prevent the free access of air by impermeable rubbers or heavy high boots. Leather, of course, is not a porous material, like certain kinds of cloth, and hinders the free passage of air and the evaporation from the surface of the feet. The most suitable footwear, and that best adapted to the demands of rational hygiene, would be sandals, similar to those worn by the Greeks and the Romans. Such, however, could only, in present days, be worn in villages, at the seaside, or in the country generally, if we do not want to be criticized as queer or eccentric by our neighbors, who have less knowledge of the hygienic methods of living.
It might be possible to make footwear in such a manner as to overcome this feeling as to wearing them—of the nature of sandals, or part sandals and part shoes—such as slippers or “pumps.” At any rate it is advisable never to wear other footgear than half-shoes, and the author of this work wears such even in winter time without inconvenience and without feeling cold. The best half-shoes for summer wear would be those made of canvas with leather soles. It goes without saying that one has to get accustomed to this habit of wearing low shoes, by beginning in warm weather and continuing uninterruptedly to the winter, and even throughout that season, unless very severe weather prevails, when gaiters should be worn above them.
If porous woolen socks of the best quality are worn in conjunction with the half-shoes cold is not felt, especially if we do not remain still but walk about briskly, which will practically convince us of the necessity of walking and running for exercise.
Rubbers are unquestionably unhealthy things to wear, and to many will cause a disagreeable sensation owing to the hindrance to foot perspiration.
It is advisable to take off our shoes, as the Mohammedan does, as often as possible during the day; for instance, while working or reading, and at any time when we are in private, and only put them on again when visitors are present. Everybody appreciates what an agreeable sensation it is to take off one’s shoes and have a good airing of the feet, especially after a long walk, in which latter case a foot-bath is also a capital thing which will certainly increase our comfort, especially if we have been wearing sandals or half-shoes and we have been wandering about the country exposed to dust.
We have referred more fully to the use of the foot-bath in another chapter. In the same way as with our footwear, we should reform our ways by removing the yoke which cruel fashion obliges us to wear round our necks—the high, stiff collar. How long shall we continue to put up with these continuous impediments to our health? Top hats! tight collars! tight boots with a pointed toe! and a fur coat over our dark clothes! How can the sun and air penetrate such idiotic harness, and how can the poisonous exhalations of the body find their way into the fresh air when they are retarded by very heavy and warm woolen underwear? We must again repeat that we catch cold much more easily when we are clad too warmly than too lightly. The more freely we perspire in our clothes the more easily we catch cold. We found this from personal experience. We were at one time always catching cold, in consequence of too sedulously wrapping ourself in woolen garments and heavy clothing. But since we have taken to wearing linen or cotton underwear and light clothes, with half-shoes, carrying our hat in the hand, and the overcoat rather on the arm than on the body, we now rarely ever catch cold.
All of our garments should be loosely fitting, and in this respect the American fashion for men’s clothing is superior to the European fashion of tightly fitting garments. Also the present style of long, narrow trousers is not only unæsthetic but also unhealthy and unsuitable for quick movements. Let us go back to the knee-breeches of forefathers, who were thereby made much more pleasing to the eyes—at least, those of normal build were.
A sufficient aëration of the body is necessary not only by day, but by night. In fact, it is more necessary at night, for as mentioned in the chapter on sleep, the ridding of the body from toxic products is performed more actively during the night. It will logically follow from this consideration that heavy feather beds and, in fact, all kinds of heavy coverlets are not beneficial to health, as they are apt to suppress the exhalations of the body and to prevent the access of air to the body. For the same reasons it is also imprudent to go to bed in underwear, and particularly if woolen. I would even go so far as to dispense with the use of the night-shirt, a garment which was quite unknown to our ancestors until a few hundred years ago. By going to bed quite nude, in a large bed, with ample bed clothes of a porous material wrapped not too tightly about the body, we have thus a kind of air bath in bed and feel more refreshed in the morning, especially after having slept in a room where the air can enter freely. In cold weather in winter a double woolen coverlet can be used.
It may be that in carrying out strictly the rules of a rational hygiene of clothing as laid down above, many people may have to revolutionize their old habits of an unhealthy and life-shortening way of living. But the real question is: Do we want to live long and retain as long as possible our youth that is passing away only too quickly in any case, or do we want to descend into an early grave before our time? Those who desire the first alternative and who wish to enjoy their lives up to the very last may follow my advice; then they will soon be rewarded by fresher looks and increased vital power.