To the Isubu in Kamerun the constellations, which they combine in certain groups, shew the course of the seasons; such constellations are e. g. tole a nyou, the tole of the elephants, in contradistinction to tole a moto, the tole of men; another is ‘the Orphans’. These are summer signs, they are all found in the eastern part of the sky[581]. In Sierra Leone the proper time for planting is shewn by the position in which the Pleiades are to be seen at sunset: the Bullom do not observe or name any other stars[582]. The Bakongo associate these stars with the rainy season: the rain comes from them, they are called ‘the Caretakers-who-guard-the-rain’[583]. When the constellation kole[584] reaches the meridian, the Bangala plant more than at any other time, because the rains, though not infrequent, are then fairly certain[585]. In Loango Sirius is called ‘the Rain-star’, since as long as he is visible the rains persist. Alongside of him Orion is regarded as a sign of the rainy season[586]. In French Guinea the people know that when the winter constellations appear above the horizon, indicating that the end of the rains has come, it is the time of harvest[587].

In the Indian Archipelago the observation of the Pleiades is the most general and frequent means of determining the time for tillage. Hence these stars are mythologically regarded as the originators of the rice-culture. The Dyaks of Sarawak say that Si Jura on a sea-voyage once found a fruit-tree with its roots in the sky and the branches hanging downwards. He climbed up into it, and since his comrades sailed away, he was obliged to climb on and on until he reached the roots and found himself in a strange land—the country of the Pleiades. There Si Kira received him kindly, and invited him to eat. “Those little maggots?” replied Si Jura. Si Kira answered:—“They are not maggots, but boiled rice”, and he explained to his guest how the rice was cultivated and reaped, and then let him down by a long rope near to his father’s house. Si Jura taught the Dyaks how to cultivate rice, and the Pleiades themselves tell them when to farm; according to the position of these stars in the heavens, morning and evening, they cut down the forest, burn, plant, and reap[588]. In another legend the Pleiades are six chickens which the hen follows, invisible; formerly there were seven, and at that time men did not know of rice, but lived on the products of the forest. One of the chickens had come down to earth, where men gave it to eat: it would not eat, however, but brought them a fruit with three husks, in which there were contained three kinds of rice, that would ripen in four, six, and eight months respectively. The hen was angry, and wished to destroy both men and the chicken: the former were saved by Orion, but only six chickens were left. During the time in which the Pleiades are invisible, the hen is brooding, but the cuckoo calls as long as they are visible[589]. The Sea-Dyaks determine the time of sowing by observing the Pleiades. Some tribes determine the approach of the time of rice-sowing from the observation of the stars. The Kayan of Borneo know the most important constellations, although they do not observe them and their motions with a practical end in view[590]. However one of the joint authors just quoted says in another place that although the Kayan more usually determine the time of sowing by the observation of the sun, yet both they and many other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades at daybreak appear just above the horizon[591]. When the time to clear fresh land in the forest draws near, a wise man is appointed to go out before dawn and watch for the Pleiades. As soon as they are seen to rise while it is still dark, the people know that the time has come to begin work, but not until they are at the zenith before dawn is it considered desirable to burn the fallen timber and sow rice. The Dyaks begin the rice-planting when the Pleiades reach the same position at about 3 or 4 o’clock in the morning as the sun reaches at 8 o’clock. Old and experienced men are on the watch to determine the spot exactly. Then a feast begins[592]. The natives of Nias, an island to the south of Sumatra, assemble to till their fields when the Pleiades appear, and regard it as useless to do so before that time[593]. In Sumatra also the time for sowing was determined in this way. The Batak of the middle of the island regulate their various agricultural operations by the position of Orion and the Pleiades. The Achenese of the north know that the sowing-time has come when the Pleiades rise before the sun, at the beginning of July[594]. In northern Celebes the rice-fields are prepared for cultivation when the Pleiades are seen at a certain height above the horizon[595]. The Kai of German New Guinea say that the time for labour in the fields has come when the Pleiades are visible above the horizon at night: the Bukaua of the same country also follow the Pleiades[596]. When the natives of the Torres Straits Islands see the Pleiades on the horizon after sunset, they say that the new yam-time has come[597]. The western tribes of these straits have names for many stars, which are largely grouped into constellations. The seasonal appearances of certain stars or constellations were noted, and their rising regulated particular dances, and also, as our authority thinks, the planting of yams and sweet potatoes[598].

Accurate information for these tribes is given by Rivers in the Reports of the Expedition to the Torres Straits. The most important constellations are ‘the Shark’ (= the Great Bear together with Arcturus) and corona borealis. Still larger is Tagai. This constellation represents a man, Tagai (= Centaurus, Lupus), standing in the prow of a canoe (Scorpio); in the stern sits Kareg (Antares). Tagai holds in his left hand (the Southern Cross) a fishing-spear, in his right (Corvus) some kupa-fruit. Below the canoe is a sucker-fish, consisting of a part of Scorpio. Naurwer are ‘the Brothers’—Vega the elder, and Altair the younger—who in their outstretched arms are holding sticks (β, γ lyrae, β, γ aquilae). In Mabuiag this constellation is called Dogai. Our Delphinus is called ‘the Trumpet-shell’, kek is probably Achernar. Others I omit. The most important star was kek, whose rising indicated not only the beginning of many ceremonies but also the planting-season. The risings and settings of the stars were observed, and certain rites and agricultural occupations regulated thereby. In Badu it was said that when only the tail of the Shark is above the horizon, the north-west wind begins to blow ‘a little bit’: when the tail has gone down altogether, the people begin to plant yams, and when the Shark comes up again, yams, sweet potatoes, and bananas are ripe. The stars also help to determine the seasons. A native of Mabuiag gave the following list of the stars relating to the season called aibaud:—kek comes up, he is the sign for everything to be done: ‘start meeting’, i. e. at the feasts the holding of which is dependent upon plentiful supplies of food; gil, usal (the Pleiades): at this time the ovaries of the turtles enlarge; pagas and dede (Betelgeuze); utimal; wapil. Towards the end of the season the Shark becomes visible, and then the pigeon migrates from New Guinea to Australia, as does the birubiru-bird when gitulai (the Crab) appears. It is expressly noted that when the people speak of the rising or setting of a constellation or star at a certain season, they have in mind the time of the year when the star or constellation in question first appears or disappears on the horizon at daybreak. Of Tagai a catasterism is related which at the same time has reference to the phenomena of the seasons at the appearance of the stars in question. On a fishing expedition the crew stole the water from him and Koang. They therefore killed them and said:—“Usal (the Pleiades), you go to New Guinea side, when you come up there will be plenty of rain. Utimal, you go to New Guinea side, you have to bring rain. Kwoior, when you come up over Mangrove Island just before the south-east monsoon sets in, there will be rain in the morning. Then the wind will shift and it will rain in the afternoon, and you, Kek, will come up in the south between Badu and Moa and it will be cold weather. When you go round this way and when you come up, then the yams and sweet potatoes will ripen. You all have work to do”[599]. A similar story is told of the Kiwai Papuans, who have for the most part the same star-names and call most of their months after stars: the Shark is also implicated in this story. When the fin sets, there is more wind and high-water; when the tail sets, more high-water; when the head rises, the copulating-season of the turtles commences. Another myth tells how Javagi got angry and threw Karongo up into heaven, where he and his three-pronged spear became the constellation Antares[600].

The Melanesians of Banks Island and the northern New Hebrides are also acquainted with the Pleiades as a sign of the approach of the yam-harvest[601]. The inhabitants of New Britain (Bismarck Archipelago) are guided in ascertaining the time of planting by the position of certain stars[602]. The Moanu of the Admiralty Islands use the stars as a guide both on land and at sea, and recognise the season of the monsoons by them. When the Pleiades (tjasa) appear at night-fall on the horizon, this is the signal for the north-west wind to begin. But when the Thornback (Scorpio) and the Shark (Altair) emerge as twilight begins, this shews that the south-east wind is at hand. When ‘the Fishers’ Canoe’ (Orion, three fishermen in a canoe) disappears from the horizon at evening, the south-east wind sets in strongly: so also when the constellation is visible at morning on the horizon. When it comes up at evening, the rainy season and the north-west wind are not far off. When ‘the Bird’ (canis major) is in such a position that one wing points to the north but the other is still invisible, the time has come in which the turtles lay eggs, and many natives then go to the Los-Reys group in order to collect them. The Crown is called ‘the Mosquito-star’, since the mosquitoes swarm into the houses when this constellation sets. The two largest stars of the Circle are called pitui an papai: when this constellation becomes visible in the early morning, the time is favourable for catching the fish papai[603]. The natives of the Bougainville Straits are acquainted with certain stars, especially the Pleiades; the rising of this constellation is a sign that the kai-nut is ripe: a ceremony takes place at this season[604]. On Treasury Island a grand festival is held towards the end of October, in order—so far as could be ascertained—to celebrate the approaching appearance of the Pleiades above the eastern horizon after sunset. In Ugi, where of all the stars the Pleiades alone have a name, the times for planting and taking up yams are determined by this constellation[605]. In Lambutjo the year is reckoned according to the position of the Pleiades. When they are in the east, it is said that ‘they are waiting’, when at the zenith, ‘they stand in the middle’, when in the west, they are ‘bowed down’. When they stand low, the turtles come up on land: the people say that they ‘go to play’, i. e. it is the pairing season. When the Pleiades are high overhead, the white men celebrate Christmas. When they ‘come up anew’, the people go to look for fish. At that time ‘the Fishes’ are in the water. ‘The Fishes’ (corona borealis) dip down when the Pleiades come up. When ‘the Fishes’ are in the sky, there are no fish in the water. In both Alu and Lambutjo one division of the year is reckoned by the return of the Pleiades, another by the almond-ripening. On the Gazelle Peninsula the time for good fishing is the time of the appearance of the Pleiades: at this time the fishing-nets are spread out. It is said that ‘the Thornback’ (Pisces) and ‘the People-at-the-feast’ (the Pleiades) must not see each other; the former constellation is called galial (‘fishes’), which at this time are not to be eaten[606]. On the island of Saa, one of the Solomon Islands, the Southern Cross is the net with four men letting it down to catch palolo, and the Pointers are two men cooking what is caught, since the palolo first comes when one of the Pointers appears above the horizon[607]. In the list of star-names given for the Carolines there are also references to the seasons. In Ponape le-poniong is seen at the time of the variable winds. In Lamotrek Corvus is called ‘the Viewer-of-the-taro-patches’, since he is visible during the taro season; the name of Arcturus is formed from ara, ‘to conclude’, and moi, ‘to come’, and the star is so called because his rising indicates the end of the north-east winds, which bring visiting parties to the island; the appearance of Capella means heavy gales and bad weather[608].

Among the astronomically learned Polynesians time-estimations according to stars play an important part: most of these however belong to the chapters on the months and the year. In Samoa it is at present an exception if an old fisherman can indicate and name this or that star which at its entrance into this or that constellation (sic!) announces the beginning of an abundant bonino-catch, the immediate return of the South Sea herring, the atuli, to its accustomed spawning-grounds, or some other similar event of importance in the life of the natives[609].

When the stars indicate this or that event, the primitive mind, as so often happens, is unable to distinguish between accompanying phenomena and causal connexion; it follows that the stars are regarded as authors of the events accompanying their appearance, when these take place without the interference of men. So in ancient Greece the expressions (a certain star) ‘indicates’ (σημαίνει) or ‘makes’ (ποιεῖ) certain weather were not kept apart, and the stars were regarded as causes of the atmospheric phenomena[610]. A similar process of reasoning is not seldom found among primitive peoples, and a few instances have already been given, such as the warming-incantation of the Bushmen against Canopus and Sirius, the name given to the Pleiades among the Bakongo (‘the Caretakers-who-guard-the-rain’), and the belief that the rain comes from them, the myth of the Euahlayi tribe that the Pleiades let ice fall down on to the earth in winter and cause thunderstorms, in other words send the rain, and the belief of the Marshall Islanders that the various positions of certain stars cause storms or good winds[611]. The same idea is very clearly seen in the account of the Hottentots given by a missionary of the 17th century[612]. At the return of the Pleiades the natives celebrate an anniversary: as soon as the stars appear above the eastern horizon the mothers lift their little ones in their arms, run up to some eminence, and shew to them these friendly stars, and teach them to stretch out their hands towards them. The people of the kraal assemble to dance and sing according to the old custom of their ancestors. The chorus is always: “O Tiqua, our father above our heads, give rain to us that the fruits (bulbs etc.), uientjes, may ripen and that we may have plenty of food: send us a good year!”

The natives of Australia (perhaps of Victoria), according to an old account, worship the heavenly bodies and think that natural causes are governed by certain constellations. They have names for these, and sing and dance to win the favour of the Pleiades, which are worshipped by one group as the giver of rain; should the rain be deferred, curses instead of blessings are bestowed on them[613]. The Euahlayi tribe thinks that the Pleiades bring frost and winter thunderstorms, and that the Milky Way by its change of position brings rain[614]. An old native, chief of the Gingi tribe, when the rain would not stop, turned to the souls of his dead friends in the Milky Way with certain charms, until they made the rain cease. The Milky Way is regarded as a stream with fertile banks[615].

These facts being so, there is nothing strange in an account which unfortunately comes from a writer whose evidence in other respects is open to grave doubt. We are told that Andy, a native of New South Wales, found the statement that the sun is the source of heat ridiculous, and said:—“If the sun makes the warm weather come in summer-time, why does he not make the winter warm, for he is seen every day?” The influence which produces heat, in the belief of the natives, accompanies the Pleiades. When these are visible at a certain altitude above the horizon, it is spring, begagewog; when they rise to their highest altitude, it is summer, winuga; when in autumn they sink down again towards the horizon, it is domda (‘autumn’); in winter they are barely visible or are lost to view altogether; it is then winter (magur), and cold. The ordinary stars have no kind of influence on the seasons, but simply the Pleiades[616]. The account agrees very well with what is otherwise known of the stellar science of the Australians, and is perfectly credible. A precisely similar story comes from the other side of the globe. At the beginning of the 18th century, when the Lapps were still heathens, one of the questions which a missionary among these people put to them about their gods was:—“Have you prayed the Pleiades to warm the weather?” In accordance with this a Lapp myth relates that a servant driven out on a very cold night by a cruel master was saved by the Pleiades. One of the Lapp names for these stars, which evidently points to this idea, is ‘the Sheep-skins’[617]. The Greeks had the same belief in Sirius as the cause of the summer heat.[618]

From this belief in the stars as causes of the natural phenomena it is but a short step to attempt to draw from the manner of their appearance conclusions as to the kind of phenomenon caused by them. To the Bakongo the Pleiades are the guardians of the rain, and when they are clearly to be seen at the beginning of the rainy season the people expect a good season, i. e. sufficient but not too much rain[619]. The Nandi of British East Africa know by the appearance or non-appearance of the Pleiades whether they may expect a good or a bad harvest[620]. The Guarayu of S. America believe that when the Pleiades at their reappearance are surrounded by a circle, it is a good omen: but if this circle is wanting, all must die[621]. In Macedonia the Pleiades are called ‘the Clucking or Brooding Hen’ (ἡ κλωσσαριά); their setting announces the advent of winter, and from the accompanying conditions omens are drawn as to the quantity of the forthcoming crop and the fertility of the cattle. If the constellation sets in a cloudy sky, this portends a rich harvest[622]. Similar weather-rules and prognostications are found in abundance in modern European folk-lore and in the so-called peasants’ calendars. The origin in the popular astrological beliefs of antiquity is usually taken for granted. It is true that astrology, especially under Mohammedan influence, has penetrated very deeply even among little civilised peoples such as the negroes of Central Africa and the Malays of the Indian Archipelago; but I see no cogent reason for finding in the above-mentioned world-wide examples of a belief in the influence of the stars upon natural phenomena any influence of that astrology which derives from ancient Babylon. Rather do these myths and traditions seem to afford an analogy to the initial stages of the Babylonian astrology, and to shew that the whole vast system of astrology had its root in primitive thinking. And the Babylonian prognostications from stars and sky remained, until a very late period, quite primitive. These observations cannot be followed up further: astrology and its origins lie outside the limits of the present study.

It has been shewn, then, that even among the most primitive peoples of the globe the stars are known, observed, considered, and used for the determination of time—the Pleiades, indeed, first and foremost, but other constellations as well; of the not nearly so frequent determination of the advance of night from the motions of the stars we have already spoken in chapter I. There is however a difference that should not be neglected between this method of determining time and the time-indications from natural phases. So far as I have been able to discover, the stars are never used in a narrative, i. e. where the date of any familiar event is to be given, but only where practical rules for the constantly recurring occupations and labours are concerned, and also for the festivals. The method therefore does not apply to the historical event in the wider sense, but only to the reiterated event the recurrence of which is empirically known. The consciousness of a fixed and constant order is therefore impressed upon the mind of primitive man much more powerfully by the eternal revolution of the constellations than by the variation of the seasons.