Whereas the Southern Australian and Queensland railways are called upon to meet the demands of agriculture, the roads of Western Australia, on the other hand, have been laid out to satisfy the extensive mining movements along the western shore of the island continent. The engineers, however, have not been called upon to face particularly stern grapples with Nature, owing to the country traversed being, for the most part, of a give-and-take character, and to there being an entire absence of high mountains and wide, rushing rivers. There is only one chain of hills of any magnitude that has to be crossed by the lines. This is the Darling range, which runs parallel with the coast from near Geraldton to the southern extremity of the country.

In order to gain the gold-fields around Coolgardie, as well as the eastern and southern stretches of the State, the difficulties confronting the engineer in connection with this low ridge were not so great as those prevailing in New South Wales. For instance, only one tunnel, 1,096 feet in length, has had to be bored. Indeed, the engineer seized the opportunity to build the line cheaply to such an extent that the lowest watermark in this respect, bearing in mind the configuration of the country, may be said to have been attained. True, the grades and curvature are heavy, the former running up to as high as 1 in 50 (2 per cent.), while the curves are of 266 feet radius. Some of the most difficult spurs in this range are traversed by the line which taps the extensive coal-fields in the Collie district—the bulk of the coal used in the State is obtained here—where sharp curves of 176 feet radius, and banks rising 1 in 40, have been introduced.

The first railway built in Western Australia was a short line from the coast to Northampton. This was completed in 1879. In those early days the finances of the country were at a very low ebb, and the engineer was forced to carry his track through the hilly country with the minimum of earthwork. The result was that curves so sharp as 88 feet radius were adopted.

The Upper Darling Range railway also deserves more than passing notice. It leaves Midland junction at the foot of the hills, and 10 miles from Perth. The precipitous character of the spurs so puzzled the engineer that he was driven to imitate the method of extrication from a difficulty of this description practised in New South Wales. He had to “zigzag” the line up the face of the bluff. Another feature of interest is on the spur from the eastern railway, known as the Smith’s Mill branch. A deep cut had to be driven through a hill, which the excavators, when they set to work, found to be a solid mass of pipe-clay!

Though the engineering trials on the railways in this State may not compare in calibre with those in other countries, there is one other difficulty which is far more significant from the railway’s point of view. I refer to the question of water supply. On the coast, where the rainfall varies between 15 and 40 inches per annum, this does not occasion any apprehension, but rain becomes scarcer and scarcer as the great interior deserts are approached. This condition prevails along a belt 150 miles or so wide, extending from Albany to Geraldton. When the discovery of gold at Coolgardie, some twenty years ago, sent a wave of excitement round the world, the miners and others who rushed to the El Dorado suffered terribly from the dearth of this indispensable commodity, and when the mines were set to work it hampered operations to a very pronounced degree. In the gold country the rainfall does not exceed six inches per annum, and consequently water had to be husbanded carefully.

The mining activity, however, brought about a remarkable expansion in the iron road, which pushed inland for nearly 600 miles. Then the water question became one of vital importance, because the locomotives required copious and frequent drinks to slake their tremendous thirsts. To bring this article up from the coast was costly. The scanty rainfall was collected so far as possible by impounding, but the water thus secured was found to be useless for the railway’s purposes. It became so heavily charged with deleterious substances, as it flowed over a salt-impregnated soil, that it set up heavy incrustation in the boilers.

This was a serious drawback, because it reduced the life of the engine’s internal organs very materially, and militated against the iron horse’s efficiency. To remedy this state of affairs, the earthen dams constructed at various points along the route, which formed small reservoirs, were supplemented by condensing plants. The most notable installation of this description was completed at Coolgardie. This plant was designed primarily to utilise the salt water from the adjacent mines. The Coolgardie condenser was capable of supplying about 60,000 gallons of fresh water per day, at a cost of 37s. 6d., or say $9 per 1000 gallons, and to furnish this requirement entailed an expenditure of £15,000, or $75,000, on the apparatus. A large distilling apparatus was set up also at Geraldton to supply the Northern railway running into the Murchison gold-fields, where the water question was also a serious factor.

While this palliative met the situation up to a certain point, it was far from satisfactory. Consequently, a few years ago a huge project was evolved to supply the Coolgardie gold-fields with unlimited quantities of excellent water. A large dam was thrown across a rift on the western slope of the Darling range about 20 miles from Perth, whereby 4,600,000,000 gallons of water are banked up. The water is dispatched from this reservoir to the gold-fields 350 miles away through a pipe 30 inches in diameter, which is sufficient to ensure the inhabitants in the gold country receiving a steady and continuous supply of 5,000,000 gallons per day. At intervals along the line large intermediate tanks are provided, together with pumping plants. As the pipe-line runs alongside, and the pumping stations are situate beside the railway, the latter can now secure ample supplies of pure water, so that the Eastern Gold-fields railway is concerned no longer with troubles in this direction.

Great activity is being displayed now in opening up the country in suitable districts alongside the main line, where fruit-growing can be practised with distinct success. These agricultural roads are built lightly in the first instance to reduce capital outlay, the average cost being about £1,200, or $6,000, per mile, but these lines will be replaced by heavier metals as the land becomes settled.

The Western Australian railways now extend for about 2,500 miles through the State, and, in addition, private enterprise is represented by the Midland Railway Company, which runs from a point 10 miles out of Perth northwards for 276 miles to Walkaway, whence Geraldton is reached by a Government line. In addition, there are numerous short roads belonging to companies working the resources of the country, especially of timber, but one and all have adopted the narrow 3½ feet gauge so as to secure uniformity and intercommunication. Bearing in mind the undulating and easy nature of the country, railway constructional costs have not been heavy. On the trunk lines outside the Darling range the cost has varied from £3,000 to £4,000—$15,000 to $20,000—per mile, according to the distance from the coast. The heaviest expenditure was incurred in traversing the Darling Mountains, where the expenditure ranged between £4,000 and £7,500—$20,000 and $37,500—per mile.

During the past few years the question of building an Australian trans-continental railway has been brought to the fore, the idea being to link up the railways on the eastern, with those on the western, sides of the continent. Such a railway would be of far-reaching strategical importance, and Lord Kitchener, during his visit to the Antipodes, urged its necessity. The proposal comprises the connection of Kalgoorlie in the Coolgardie district with Fort Augusta in the neighbouring State of South Australia, whence Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Rockhampton on the Queensland coast could be reached by rail from Perth. To complete such a scheme would entail the crossing of the edge of the Victoria desert, but as the physical character of the country does not offer any great difficulties, it is estimated that the 1,070 miles of line could be built for £5,000,000, or $25,000,000.

When the States were federated, Western Australia, feeling that it was cut off from its sister States, concluded that if it co-operated to form a homogeneous commonwealth, the construction of a trans-continental highway would follow as a matter of course. This anticipation caused the western state to throw in its lot with the other territories. Western Australia for a long time previous had cherished the idea of connecting itself physically with the east by means of the iron road, but it was not financially in the position to undertake the project unaided. Still it authorised one of its engineers, Mr. John Muir, to run through the country it was intended to traverse, and to report generally upon the feasibility of the scheme.

The journey undertaken by this engineer gives an interesting sidelight as to the task of surveying a new road in Australia, especially in the lesser-known hinterland. Mr. Muir organised a small party, with camels as the vehicles of transport. The beasts numbered twelve in all, five being utilised for riding purposes and the remainder as pack-animals, carrying the restricted requirements for the little party. They set out from the most easterly point to which the Western Australian railways had penetrated in the requisite direction. Leaving the gold-field country, they entered the great Victoria Desert. Water was the one difficulty they apprehended, for they knew from the experiences of various explorers in this arid belt that this commodity could be found only here and there. The camels, consequently, were restricted to short rations—one drink every five days, the party carrying sufficient of the liquid to meet its own needs during the intervals. The animals evidently did not appreciate these strict regulations, because the party, whenever they left a water-hole, had the greatest difficulty in persuading the camels to continue the journey, and even when they did resume the trail the beasts frequently stopped to turn their heads longingly in the direction of the last water station.

This small party covered 1000 miles, collecting valuable data, which, upon return, was investigated searchingly and compared with the information that other travellers had gathered when piercing the country at different times. As a result a comprehensive scheme was drawn up, and the possibilities of such through communication were revealed in no uncertain manner.

Some years later the Commonwealth sanctioned the completion of a more exhaustive survey, Mr. H. Deane, M.INST.C.E., formerly engineer-in-chief to the New South Wales railways, being placed in charge of the whole undertaking. The enterprise was divided into two sections, the Federal Government undertaking to complete the task from Coolgardie to the eastern frontier of Western Australia, while South Australia decided to complete the work so far as it affected its own territory. Mr. John Muir, who had been through the country previously for the Western Australian Government, was selected by the chief engineer as first lieutenant on the former division, and he enrolled four other surveyors.

For this task no less than 91 camels were acquired. Of this total 36 animals were deputed to haul three team-wagons, a like number were subdivided into three strings of pack-animals, three carried stakes for locating the line, while the others were used for various purposes. An important task was the distribution of stores to the extent of 18 tons along the route for the survey party, together with ample supplies of water for both man and beast, the water stations being spaced at intervals of 7 miles.

To plot the route the chief surveyor set out ahead of the main party. He ran the line by the aid of a compass, and checked his work by means of stellar observations. The last camel in his train was required to haul a heavy bullock-chain, the free extremity of which was knotted, and as this dragged over the ground it left a trail which could be picked up and followed easily by the main party following in the rear. The latter measured the distance by chains and took levels at frequent points, and these were checked constantly. This survey party moved forward at the rate of 6 miles per day, and it covered the Western Australian section of 455 miles in 89 days.

The South Australian Government engineers experienced greater difficulty in completing their part of the work, for on their section, extending over 608 miles, the scarcity of water was felt acutely. They were caught by the intensely hot summer, which dried up all available founts of supply speedily, and consequently the men and the 80 camels could not advance very rapidly, their daily movement averaging about 3 miles. In due course they gained the inter-state boundary and picked up the last stake indicating the route left by the party which had advanced westwards from Kalgoorlie.

A sum of £20,000, or $100,000, was expended upon this preliminary work. In addition to location, other valuable details were secured, the most important of which was in regard to the economic possibilities of the territory traversed. Far from much of the country being sterile, as previous reports had indicated, it was ascertained that, under proper scientific farming, it could be brought to a high standard of fertility and productiveness. There is one long doubtful stretch of 107 miles through a waterless plain, but if it were possible to adopt irrigation, there are great hopes that this country might be found excellent for grazing purposes.

The standard gauge was advocated for the trans-continental highway, and it was pointed out that if this connection were forged, not only would the line prove of distinct military value, but that it would possess great commercial attractions as well. For instance, there is a considerable and increasing trade between the Coolgardie gold-fields country and the eastern States, which has to be carried out by steamer at present, involving a long, tedious journey, whereas by rail the two centres would be brought within direct and accelerated connection of one another. Another feature was emphasised also, and that was the great saving in time possible by dispatching the European mails and passenger traffic overland from east to west, instead of by sea as at present.

The Commonwealth appears resolved to carry the scheme to fulfilment, especially in view of Lord Kitchener’s strong advocacy of the project, and when this is accomplished passengers landing at Fremantle will be able to travel by rail so far as Rockhampton in Queensland, a distance of 3,800 miles. Owing to the varying gauges in Australia, such a journey would involve no less than five changes of carriages at least, and this is the one great disadvantage connected with the scheme.

In order to observe railway engineering in its most spectacular form in the Antipodes one must cross the Tasman Sea into New Zealand. The England of the South is provided with a backbone of lofty and extremely broken ridges. Indeed, the advance of the railway-builder through this country has been beset with abnormal obstacles which recall the conquests of the Rocky and Cascade mountains in North America. The most outstanding feature on the whole network of railways operated by the Government is the amazing number of bridges, the cost of which must represent a huge sum. In the early days chasms and gorges which the railway was forced to cross were spanned by wooden structures, but these have since been replaced by substantial and often lofty steel structures. Whenever the engineer has essayed to leave the coast on either side of the island, the mountains have reared up to dispute his advance, and it has been only by dint of great effort that the metals have been carried over these great barriers.

At the present time the country has one gigantic project in hand which is without a parallel south of the Equator. This is the Otira tunnel, which is being driven for 5½ miles under the gorge of the same name. This great work occurs on the line which is destined to connect Christchurch on the east, with Greymouth on the west, coast of the South Island. The two points are separated by the Southern Alps, many peaks of which jut 12,000 feet into the clouds. This undertaking was commenced by private enterprise, but when 35 miles of the line had been completed, the physical difficulties to be overcome were found to be so great that the company shrank from attempting the apparently impossible, and accordingly the ambitious idea was abandoned.

The result was that the Government took the railway over and determined to penetrate the mountain chain at all hazards. The Otira tunnel, though the most notable feature, is but one of many notable works, for the bridges and smaller tunnels compel just as much attention. To give some idea of their frequency and character it may be mentioned that, in a short length of 9 miles, there are 4 high steel viaducts, one of which carries the rails 236 feet above the floor of the gorge, and no less than 17 short tunnels, the longest of which is about 2000 feet, while there is scarcely a mile of level line! The grades on this railway in some cases are very severe, that through the Otira tunnel itself being 2 per cent., or 1 in 50.

From the earliest days one dream had occupied the attention of, all concerned in New Zealand’s welfare and progress. This was a trunk railway from Wellington to Auckland. The fact that only some 450 miles separated the two cities by a feasible route was hammered home vehemently by enthusiasts, but it was some time before the requisite courage and determination to effect the connection could be summed up. Pessimists pointed out the great mountains and deep, wide gorges that would have to be conquered, and the enormous expenditure their subjugation by the steel highway would entail. To-day, however, the North Island Trunk railway connects the two points, but it proved a prodigious undertaking, calling for the display of remarkable ingenuity.

The early surveyors pointed out that Mount Ruapehu would demand much hard and heavy thinking on the part of the engineers. So it proved. The railway skirts the base of this peak, but has to make a stiff ascent in a short distance. The engineer did not resort to a zigzag to overcome the difficulty, but profited from the example of Hellwag on the St. Gotthard, who had to extricate that line from a similar tight corner. Recourse was made to a spiral. The result is that the railway emerges from a tunnel burrowed through a crest, and shortly after sweeps round in a graceful curve to cross the tunnel through the same obstruction; the railway overcomes the steep ascent by means of a stretch of corkscrew track.

Near the base of the same mountain there is a deep gorge over which the line was forced to pass. From the point at which the track gained the brink it was about 800 feet to the opposite cliff edge, and the precipice delved down to nearly 300 feet. This is the famous Makatote Gorge, and the engineer decided to spring across the gap.

The contract was secured by Messrs. J. & A. Anderson of Christchurch, and they lost no time in attacking the task. When they appeared on the scene there was no road to the site of the viaduct, and the railway was still 20 miles distant, so the prospect was not inviting. The sides of the mountain were covered with dense primeval jungle-like bush, which had to be hacked back to permit of investigations of the situation, and six months passed before the wagon road for the purposes of the railway was driven through the district. This constituted the only channel over which the requisite steel material could be transported.

The constructional engineers concluded that the best means of meeting the situation was to erect a workshop on the spot where the necessary steel-work could be prepared. Electricity was generated to operate the various tools demanded. The rainfall averaged about 96 inches per year, and at times the insignificant stream flowing through the V-shaped fissure was nothing but a foaming torrent, sweeping everything away in its mad rush.

The constructional engineers were faced with the erection of one tower springing from the bank of the waterway beneath to a height of 270 feet, while other towers of 249, 208, 175 and 110 feet in height respectively were demanded. The spans were of equal length, viz. 100 feet, flanked on either side by approaches, and the undertaking called for the use of about 1000 tons of steel.

The foundations comprise concrete pedestals which were sunk into the ground, and these carry steel towers somewhat after the American pattern, giving lightness, with rigidity and strength. Every piece of steel was riveted to its neighbour by means of pneumatic tools, which not only expedited the task of securing the sections together, but eliminated the possibility of accidents arising from the swinging of sledge-hammers, especially at the greatest heights. The spans of steel connecting each tower with its neighbour were erected from the rail level, without recourse to false-work. Owing to the many and careful precautionary methods adopted, the erecting work was carried through without the slightest hitch or the loss of a single life. When the task was completed the strength of the constructional engineers’ handiwork was tested thoroughly by a train of the heaviest locomotives used upon the New Zealand railway being run across the bridge at varying speeds, until the maximum attained in practice was reached. The Makatote Viaduct stands as one of the finest pieces of its work of this type that ever has been completed in the Antipodes.

Another striking engineering achievement was the building of the Central Otago railway which runs from Dunedin to the interior of Otago. The line not only threads knots of mountains, but also spans numerous rifts. Indeed, so much bridging became necessary that the railway has become known as “The Bridge Line.” In completing this road nearly every type of structure known to the engineer was adopted. The largest structure is the Wingatui Viaduct, where the rail is carried about 146 feet above the floor of a broken, winding gorge on a creation of steel comprising three spans, each measuring 196 feet in length, and five smaller spans, each of 66 feet, supported on pyramidal steel towers. Another work of a similar character is the Flat Creek Viaduct, where the rail runs across the rift about 100 feet above its deepest part in six spans of 66 feet each. These mountain creeks, it may be pointed out, are simply masses of rocky boulders in the dry season, but when they are called upon to carry away the accumulation of water, they are nothing but torrents tearing along with fiendish turbulence, and bearing down considerable quantities of heavy stones, against the batterings of which the erections of the engineer would be futile were they not carried out upon the most substantial lines. In contrast to the permanent metallic structures is the Waian timber trestle on the South Island main trunk line, which measures no less than 613 feet from end to end. Verily, New Zealand may be described as the land of the bridge-builder in excelsis, owing to such varied opportunities to demonstrate his skill.