[Note 58] p. 241.—Migrations of Bisons.

In regard to the migration of the bison or buffalo, Mr. G. B. Grinnell writes:—“It was once thought that the buffalo performed annually extensive migrations, and it was even said that those which spent the summer on the banks of the Saskatchewan wintered in Texas. There is no reason for believing this to have been true. Undoubtedly there were slight general movements north and south, and east and west, at certain seasons of the year; but many of the accounts of these movements are entirely misleading, because grossly exaggerated. In one portion of the northern country I know that there was a decided east-and-west seasonal migration, the herds tending in spring away from the mountains, while in the autumn they worked back again, seeking shelter in the rough, broken country of the foot-hills from the cold west winds of the winter.”—American Big-Game Hunting (Boone and Crockett Club), edited by Theodore Roosevelt and George Bird Grinnell, Edin., 1893.

[Note 59] p. 250.—Migrations of Seals.

Much interesting information as to the migrations and habits of seals will be found in J. A. Allen’s History of North American Pinnipedia. The eared fur-seals (Otaria) and others travel periodically to the breeding-places or “rookeries”, where they spend a considerable time, but it should be noted that our common seal (Phoca vitulina) does not make seasonal migrations.

[Note 60] p. 256.—Instinct of the Lemming.

A discussion of the strange instinct of the lemming, remarkable in its apparent fatality, will be found in Romanes’s Mental Evolution in Animals.

[Note 61] p. 258.—Numbers of Springbok.

“I beheld the plains and even the hillsides which stretched on every side of me thickly covered, not with herds, but with one vast mass of springboks; as far as the eye could strain the landscape was alive with them, until they softened down into a dim red mass of living creatures. To endeavour to form any idea of the number of antelopes which I had that day beheld were vain, but I have no hesitation in saying that some hundreds of thousands were within the compass of my vision.”—Gordon Cumming. With this should be compared what other sportsmen and travellers have in recent years told us of rapidly diminishing numbers.

[Note 62] p. 260.—The Monkey Question.

The position of evolutionists in regard to the relations of man and monkeys is conveniently stated in Huxley’s Man’s Place in Nature. A criticism of the thorough-going evolutionist position, from the philosopher’s point of view, will be found in Professor Calderwood’s Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature. A midway position is indicated in Wallace’s Darwinism.

While most naturalists are now thoroughly evolutionist in regard to the descent or ascent of man, as in regard to other problems, most would probably agree with Lloyd Morgan’s cautious conclusion:—

“In denying to animals the perception of relations and the faculty of reason, I do so in no dogmatic spirit, and not in support of any preconceived theory or opinion, but because the evidence now before us is not, in my opinion, sufficient to justify the hypothesis that any animals have reached that stage of mental evolution at which they are even incipiently rational.”

Probably all naturalists allow that animals who profit by experience and adapt their actions to varying circumstances are intelligent. But cases which force us to credit animals with general ideas, with “thinking the therefore”, in short, with reason, are admitted by few.

[Note 63] p. 272.—Sexual Selection.

For a statement of the doctrine of sexual selection, the original document—Darwin’s Descent of Man—should be consulted. But the theory has met with strong criticism, e.g. on the part of Alfred Russel Wallace, see his Darwinism. See also The Evolution of Sex, by Geddes and Thomson, and Lloyd Morgan’s Animal Life and Intelligence.

[Note 64] p. 279.—Polygamous Birds.

Darwin has discussed the question of polygamous birds in his Descent of Man.

[Note 65] p. 281.—The Widowed Bird.

For one of the finest expressions in literature of the possible emotions of the widowed bird, we may be allowed to refer to Walt Whitman’s “Out of the cradle endlessly rocking” (Leaves of Grass).

[Note 66] p. 285.—Descent from Monkeys.

Hanumân, the sacred Hindoo long-tailed monkey, plays an important part in Hindoo mythology. He was the friend of Vishnu during his incarnation as Rama Chandra, and he aided the god greatly in the search for his wife Sita, who had been carried off by Ravān. A female slave, who had tended Sita kindly during her captivity, was married to Hanumân as a reward, and this pair some Indian noble families proudly claim as ancestors.

[Note 67] p. 286.—Monkeys on the Rock of Gibraltar.

A letter written in 1880 by an officer in Gibraltar to the Field newspaper and quoted in vol. i. of the Royal Natural History gives the number living on the Rock at that time as twenty-five, among whom were only two adult males. There had been several gangs of them at one time, but they had done so much damage in the town gardens that they had been nearly exterminated by means of traps and poison. But in 1856, when their numbers had been reduced to four or five, a garrison order was issued forbidding further destruction of them, and since that time they have been strictly preserved and regularly counted. In 1863, four were imported from Africa, and after a time were admitted as members of the band. Another attempt was made in 1872 to reinforce their numbers, but it was unsuccessful.

[Note 68] p. 290.—Habits of Monkeys.

See Mr. Garner’s observations on monkeys (Speech of Monkeys, 1893); Hartmann’s Apes and Monkeys (Internat. Science Series), Romanes’s Animal Intelligence and Mental Evolution in Animals. H. A. Forbes, A Handbook to the Primates (Allen’s Naturalist’s Library; Lond. 1894). Mr. Havelock Ellis in his Man and Woman (Lond. 1894) has some interesting notes on the relation of young monkeys and young children to the adult forms.

[Note 69] p. 291.—Death from Grief.

Instances of death from grief are given in Romanes’s Animal Intelligence. See also a paper by Mr. Garner in Harper’s Monthly, 1894.

[Note 70] p. 298.—Speech of Monkeys.

See Mr. Garner’s Speech of Monkeys (Lond. 1893), which tends to support Brehm’s view. But in reference to Garner’s work, Lloyd Morgan says, “Of the nine sounds made by capuchins, not one is, so far as the observations go, indubitably indicative of a particular object of desire. All of them may be, and would seem to be, in the emotional stage, and expressive of satisfaction, discontent, alarm, apprehension, and so forth. Still they may be indicative of particular objects of appetence or aversion; and experiments with the phonograph, conducted with due care and under test-conditions, may do much to throw light upon an interesting and important problem.” After careful consideration, Prof. Lloyd Morgan says, “At present, however, there is not, so far as I am aware, any evidence that animals possess powers of descriptive intercommunication involving perception of relations”.

[Note 71] p. 298.—Right and Wrong in Monkeys.

What is said here should be compared with the discussion of the subject in Darwin’s Descent of Man, Romanes’s Mental Evolution in Animals, or perhaps most conveniently in Lloyd Morgan’s Introduction to Comparative Psychology (Lond. 1894). According to the last-named authority the moral sense “involves a thinking of the ought; it involves a more or less definite perception of the relation of a given act to an ideal standard”. “In none of these cases (cited), is there sufficient evidence to justify a belief that a standard of conduct takes form in the animal mind.”

[Note 72] p. 303.—Mutual Aid among Monkeys.

Mr. Darwin quotes this case in his Descent of Man, and calls the monkey “a true hero”. Similar examples of mutual aid will be found in the same work, as also in a couple of articles by Prince Kropotkine, “Mutual Aid among Animals”, Nineteenth Century, 1889.

[Note 73] p. 316.—Effect of age.

There are some who hold that observation favours the opposite view, that the young ape is relatively more human and less simian than the adult. With these, rather than with Brehm, we agree. There is, however, need of more precise physiological and psychological observation.

[Note 74] p. 318.—Man’s Place in Nature.

It should be noted that the zoologist’s usual statement of his position is that he believes that men and the higher apes have arisen from a common stock. See Huxley’s Man’s Place in Nature. As the anthropoid apes are believed to have diverged as distinct types in Miocene times, the common stock is plainly in the almost inconceivably distant past. A belief in descent from a common stock does not in the least affect the demonstrable distinctiveness of man, nor does it explain how the evolution, whose results we are, took place. See Darwin’s Descent of Man, and Drummond’s Ascent of Man.

[Note 75] p. 330.—Nodules in the Desert.

These seem to be the now well-known manganese nodules. The puzzling question of their origin is discussed by Dr. John Murray in that part of the Challenger Reports which deals with marine deposits. Solymos thus describes them, “Belted by higher hills, I have mounted one, apparently consisting entirely of a lofty pile of hardened equal sandstone balls, the size of peaches. They were as nearly globular as anything in nature—a bubble, a drop, a planet.”

[Note 76] p. 358,—On the Nile and its Cataracts.

See Sir Samuel Baker’s The Nile and its Tributaries (1867), and Walter Budge, The Nile: Notes for Travellers in Egypt (1890).

[Note 77] p. 359.—Syenite.

Syenite, a hard crystalline rock, resembling granite, and well adapted for monuments. It is not known in Britain, but occurs in many parts of Europe and America, as well as at the place to which it owes its name.

[Note 78] p. 362.—Philæ.

Philæ has recently been a centre of attention in connection with the Egyptian waterworks. See Sir Benjamin Baker, “Nile Reservoirs and Philæ”, Nineteenth Century, xxxv. (1894), pp. 863-72; J. P. Mahaffy, “The Devastation of Nubia”, pp. 1013-18; Frank Dillon, “The Submergence of Philæ”, pp. 1019-25; H. D. Pearsall, “The Nile Reservoirs”, Scottish Geographical Magazine (1895, August), pp. 393-402.

[Note 79] p. 370.—Government of Egypt.

The reader must bear in mind that Egypt has had a somewhat complex political history since Brehm wrote.

[Note 80] p. 397.—Archar Sheep.

Archar or arkal is the Kirghiz name for the Mongolian argali (Ovis ammon). The animal is almost as large as a donkey, has enormous horns and short coarse hair. It is said to be now restricted to Northern Mongolia, and some districts of Southern Siberia. The Tibetan argali (Ovis hodgsoni) is closely allied. See Sir V. Brooke, Proc. Zoological Society, 1875.

[Note 81] p. 412.—Splenic Fever.

Anthrax or splenic fever is a rapidly fatal disease due to a microbe, Bacillus anthracis. This was demonstrated by Koch, and corroborated by Pasteur. The latter discovered how to attenuate the virus, and secure immunity by inoculation. Cattle, sheep, and reindeer are among the commonest victims; but, as the narrative shows, man himself is not exempt.

[Note 82] p. 426.—Present state of Ostiaks.

The Ostiak population was estimated in 1891 at about 27,000, and is believed to be still decreasing. There is some interesting information regarding them in Erman’s Travels in Siberia.

[Note 83] p. 433—Larvæ out of nostrils.

The reindeer is excessively troubled by the attacks of several insects, related to the bot-flies (Œstridæ), which attack sheep, cattle, and horses in this country. One lays its eggs in the skin, another in the nostrils, whence the larvæ emerge. The reindeer have a great horror of these insects, and are said to become weak and emaciated in their efforts to avoid them. The disease due to the parasitic insects is sometimes referred to as “germ”, and may destroy most of a herd.

[Note 84] p. 438.—Brick Tea.

See Note 36.

[Note 85] p. 444.—Shamans.

Some interesting details as to these in Hofgaard’s Nordenskïold’s Voyage. He speaks of the preparatory asceticism: “solitude, watching, fasting, exciting and narcotic remedies work upon his imagination; he soon sees the spirits and the apparitions he heard about in his youth, and believes firmly in them”.... “He is no cool, calculating deceiver, no common conjuror.” “Sometimes they have been thrashed in order that they might change a particular prophecy, but Wrangel relates a case in 1814, when their orders to kill a beloved chief, in order to stay a plague, were at length obeyed. Though Christianity has been introduced for more than a century, the Shamans have still (1882) much power.”

A scholarly account of the Shamans, which includes much interesting material in regard to the customs which Brehm describes in this chapter, will be found in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv., August and September, 1894. “Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia”, being the second part of “Shamantsvo,” by Professor V. M. Mikhailovskii, translated by O. Wardrop.

[Note 86] p. 514.—Geology of the Altai.

“In the Altai the mountains are built up of granites, syenites, and diorites covered with metamorphic slates belonging to the Laurentian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods. The Jurassic strata on the outskirts are all fresh-water deposits, and contain coal.”

“The Altai Mines (12,000 men) yielded in 1881, 16,670 lbs. of silver, 13,140 cwts. lead, 6708 cwts. copper, 3200 cwts. iron, 240,000 cwts. coal, and 320,000 cwts. salt.”

[Note 87] p. 539.—The Exile System.

The reader should consult Dr. Lansdell’s Through Siberia (London, 1882); H. de Windt’s Siberia As It Is (London, 1892); Seebohm’s Siberia in Asia (1882). While some, e.g. de Windt, give an account of the exile system which agrees with Brehm’s, it should be noted that others think very differently; see Kennan’s Siberia and the Exile System (1891).

[Note 88] p. 563.—The Penduline Titmouse.

A very small species of titmouse occurring in Southern Europe and Africa. Its remarkable nest (see figure) is formed of a felt woven of hemp or wool often mixed with goat’s hair. It usually hangs on the extreme end of a branch just over water. Both birds share in the work of building, as also in that of hatching and rearing the young, of which there are usually seven.