Before going directly to the main discussion of our theme, a background is sought in a brief semasiological study of the word Volk. The word is widespread in the Germanic languages; Gothic, however, offers no examples. Among the earliest recorded Germanic forms are those in Old English and in Old High German. Old English folc meant people, common people, multitude, a people, tribe, family, army:
“He sloh folces Denigea fyftyne men”—Beowulf.
“Folces hyrde”—Beowulf.
It was particularly used originally of a crowd of people. Skeat’s Etymological Dictionary suggests the possibility of its being related to both flock and full.
Old High German folc meant people, body of warriors, servants, crowd, mass. The oldest meaning here suggests forces of war: dhazs himiliscâ folc.
The word occurs in Old Frisian as folk; in Old Saxon, folc; and in Old Norse, folk; with meanings equivalent to those found in Old High German and Old English.
Kluge’s Etymological Dictionary says that the meaning “division of an army” seems to be the fundamental meaning of the family group, from which Lithuanian pulkas, heap mass, Old Slavonic plŭkŭ, host of war, are borrowed forms.
In Middle English the word took on the additional meaning of an aggregation of people in relation to a superior; e.g., God, a king, or priest; further it began to mean also the vulgar or lower classes, this use easily rising out of the meaning “mass” or “the many.” Such expressions occur as beboden waes Godes folce, Folkes Mass Book.
In Middle High German the meaning was people, hosts of war, army, servants, subjects, multitude: er das Volk gewan (Gudrun, 1162, 2).
In Modern English the word is chiefly colloquial, being superseded in more formal use by “people.”
In numerous combinations (following German precedent) it has the sense of pertaining to, current among, or existing among the masses of the people or the common people. Such expressions as folk-belief, folk-custom, folk-literature, folk-name, folk-song, and folk-speech are prevalent.
Modern High German has retained the word with nearly all of its primitive meanings: die schottischen Völker empören sich und drohen abzuziehen;[1] Mein Volk zu mindern;[2] Was rennt das Volk?;[3] du weisst, wir alten fahren, und ihr junges Volk reitet;[4] den Teufel spürt das Völkchen nie.[5]
The large number of compounds in which the word is used limit its connotation to either “the masses” or “the common people”: Volksbuch, Volksdichter, Volksgeist, Volkslehrer, Volksschule, etc. Kluge in his Etymological Dictionary says: “Connection with Latin vulgus is uncertain; for it is questionable whether the Latin word together with the Germanic family group would come from an original qelgos, qolgos.”
Weigand, Deutsches Wörterbuch says: “The earlier comparison with the Latin, volgus, is not possible. Rather to be compared here are the word voll and roots related to the Greek πλῆθος.”
The ideas conveyed by the fundamental meanings found in the word Volk appear in other words and in various languages:
πλῆθος—a great number, a throng, a crowd, multitude, especially of people.
πολύς—properly of number, many; opposed to ὀλίγος.
οἱ πολλοί—the many; that is, the greater number.
ὄχλος—a moving crowd, a throng, irregular crowd, in a political sense, the populace or mob, opposed to δῆμος.
γένος—race, stock, family, whether by blood or by nationality: αἷμα τε καὶ γένος
——a race in regard to number, γένος ἀνδρῶν, mankind.
φῦλον—a set of men or any living beings as naturally distinct from others; a race or tribe; in a closer sense, a race of people or a nation.
ἔθνος—a number of people living together, a company, a body of men.
ἔθνος ἑταίρων—a band of comrades.
ἔθνος λαῶν—a host of men.
ὁ δῆμος—a district, country, land. Also the people of such a district, hence (as in early times the common people were scattered through the country while the chiefs held the city) the commons, common people. δήμου ἀνήρ opposed to βασιλεύς.
Vulgus—people collectively or without distinction, the public or people generally: Non est consilium in vulgo. The multitude, the common people, the populace.
Populus—a people, the commons in contradistinction to the senate and knights: senatus populusque Romanus. The inhabitants of a country or town, a nation, a whole people: Populus Romanus victor dominusque omnium gentium. A large number of people, a crowd, throng: populus fratrum.
Plebs—The common people, commonality, the ignoble opposed to patricii, patres or senatus; whereas populus comprises both classes. When the knights, equites, were raised to a separate class, the plebs formed the third; i.e., the last or lowest class; hence, the lower class of people, the populace, the mass.
Peuple—a multitude of people of the same country and living under the same laws: Les peuples ne souffrent que par les fautes des rois.[6]
Peuple—a multitude of people who, although not occupying the same country, have the same religion or the same origin: et je serai leur Dieu, et eux ils seront mon peuple.[7]
Peuple—that part of a nation considered as opposed to the classes among whom there is either more ease or more education: Il y a le peuple qui est opposé aux grands. C’est la populace et la multitude.[8]
In Middle English the word people was already a synonym for folc: “A Blysful lyf, Ledden the peoples in the former age” (Chaucer).
In Modern English the word people has almost entirely displaced Volk except in colloquial or archaic speech. Like Volk in its fundamental sense we have:
People—a body of persons composing a community, tribe, race, or nation.
People—persons in relation to a superior, or to some one to whom they belong.
People—the common people, the commonality; the mass of the community as distinguished from the nobility and ruling, or official, classes, etc. “A people’s voice! We are a people yet” (Tennyson).