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Primitive man everywhere seems to have used stone, wood, and bone in the manufacture of weapons before he advanced to a knowledge of the use of metal. The terms ‘Stone,’ ‘Bronze,’ and ‘Iron,’ adopted first by Scandinavian archæologists, are now generally used to signify the successive ‘Ages’ of human development from prehistoric into historic times. The vast quantity of stone and bronze objects found in Ireland are conclusive that at certain remote periods they were in general use. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that stone only was at one time used, and that bronze, on account of its superiority, in time superseded the older material. Though each prevailed, and was characteristic of its own period, yet no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between them, and the overlapping occurs everywhere. We have evidence in lake-dwelling remains to show that, after iron was introduced, stone, bronze, and iron implements were used simultaneously. Stone weapons were in use down to the Middle Ages, and stone hammers were used in remote places down to modern times.

The antiquity of man in Ireland has long been a subject of general archæological interest and discussion. He is considered by some authorities to have been contemporary with the cervus giganteus, whose remains have been discovered in such large numbers in the country. These have been found in the crannogs of Cloonfinlough, Loughrea, and in the caves of Ballynamintra. Professor Leith Adams and Messrs. Kinahan and Ussher, in the exploration of the latter, found the bones in connexion with ‘battered and chipped’ hammer-stones, which they had little doubt was the work of man to extract the marrow.90 They were found mixed with the remains of Neolithic fauna, red-deer, horse, ox, grizzly bear, wolf, badger, fox, dog, etc.

The evidence of the existence of Palæolithic man lies deep in the drifts or raised banks of ancient rivers, or far below the present floors of caves. If he ever existed in Ireland, he has left no conclusive evidence of his presence, so far as our knowledge goes. The relics of Neolithic man lie near the surface, and evidence of his existence has been found throughout the length and breadth of the land. When he started in Ireland, he is supposed to have had a considerable knowledge in the use of stone weapons and skill in their manufacture. In fashioning flint implements, in the selection of the hardest and best kinds of stone, in shaping and polishing these for various uses, he showed an intelligence and skill of no mean order. Finished flint articles have been found in the north of Ireland in thousands; and the refuse of their manufacture exists in large quantities. Few countries equal Ireland in the number of stone implements which have been discovered of every kind, or can show greater excellence in their style and finish.

Flint Arrow-heads.​—​Flint as the hardest stone and the readiest to chip was much sought for; and as Antrim furnished this in nodules in the Chalk formation, it was there worked in great quantities. Knives, scrapers, arrow- and spear-heads, chisels and axe-heads were fashioned in many places, especially on the coast where the flint accumulates along the undercliffs, or on the raised beaches of Larne, Kilroot, and Whitepark Bay. In these places hundreds of flakes may be gathered in a short time​—​the waste material from the workshops of the makers of flint implements that once existed on these sites. At Portstewart and Castlerock, on the coast of Donegal, at Dundrum, Co. Down, and along the Bann valley, great quantities of worked flints have been found, indicating a wide area for the manufacture of weapons.

An examination of flint flakes will show certain general characteristics which, when found existing in a large number of instances, are conclusive that they are the result of manipulation and not of natural agency. Hammer-stones and cores are also found in numbers on these sites. The latter are the lumps from which the flakes were struck; and the hammer-stones, generally pebbles of any hard stone, such as quartzite, basalt, or granite, show signs of use in their chipped ends. Scrapers, so much used in the curing and dressing of skins, and such like purposes, are also found in great numbers and variety. The women of the Eskimo and other Arctic tribes, at the present day, use flint scrapers in dressing the skins of animals and birds. These rude instruments have been found in quantities in the hut-sites on the coasts of Down, Antrim, and Donegal, and other places that marked the wanderings of Neolithic man.

Arrow-heads have been found in such quantities, and of such variety, that we can here only give a general outline of their classification. It has been estimated that about ten thousand exist in collections at the present time, not including those which have been sent out of the country, which probably amount to as many more. In size arrow-heads measure from about 1 inch to 4; these latter, indeed, and those up to about 7 or 8 inches long, must have been used as javelin or spear-points; but, as there is no hard-and-fast dividing line between them, all may be included in a general description. Some have been found under one inch in length, but these are not common. The spear-head (fig. 2) in the National Museum is 6½ inches long and nearly 2 inches broad at the widest part. It was rubbed smooth after chipping, and is, perhaps, the most perfect of the class yet found. Owing to their great variety of form, it is difficult to make a classification of arrow-heads simple enough to cover all. For general purposes, however, a three-fold division will suffice: leaf-shaped, triangular, and stemmed. An examination, however, of any good collection will show that further sub-division is needed under each head, if a thorough classification and arrangement are required. The Leaf-shaped arrows are very varied in shape and size; and to this class belong some of the largest, many of them showing the most perfect manipulation and delicacy of touch in regard to the chipping. As the name indicates, these are in general shaped like a leaf; but this class also includes a large variety of those of a modified leaf-form. They were the easiest to make, and were probably the earliest in point of time.

Triangular arrow-heads are very numerous, and much more so in Ireland than in England. Most of the objects of this class have an inward curve in the base, or are notched, leaving barbs or wings between which the split-shaft was placed. The Stemmed arrow-heads were probably a development from the leaf or triangular types, and their advantage over them is obvious. The head was kept in its place and prevented from splitting the shaft, while the barbs rendered the weapons more effective in war or in the chase. These vary with long or short stems: some are without barbs; others have barbs and stems of equal length; while varieties may be noticed in the edges being straight, curved either concave or convex, some having a combined or slightly S-shaped curve.

Owing to the perishable nature of the shaft, the discovery of a perfect arrow is exceedingly rare. There are, we believe, only two recorded instances in Ireland​—​one (here figured) in the King’s County, in Ballykellan bog, and the other near Glenarm, Co. Antrim. The head seems to have been fastened into the split of the shaft by a kind of cement, and then tied with sinew.91 Much superstition has been attached to arrow-heads in Great Britain and Ireland. They have been regarded as ‘elf-shots’ or ‘elf-stones’ cast by the fairies at men or cattle: hence they have been often worn as charms, or used as such in curing bewitched cattle by putting them into their drink, which was supposed to remove the evil.

Knives of flint are also found; the most finished examples are triangular in shape and pointed, with straight back, bevelled edge, and tang for insertion into a handle. Saws are numerous, and the serrated edges were either originally so chipped, or they became so by use. These are widely distributed, and have been found in Egypt, Greece, and through Europe to Denmark and the British Isles.

Flaking tools or ‘fabricators,’ as they are called, were used in the making of flint instruments, examples of which may be seen in the National Museum collection. These are narrow pieces of flint 4 or 5 inches long, with blunt ends and a ridge on one or both faces. A deer’s horn or other pointed bone was also used for flaking; the finer work was probably usually done with such tools. The method was by pressure, and the finest flaking can thus be executed. Though this can be imitated with some practice, yet the best work on the faces of arrow- and spear-heads baffles imitation, showing the perfection of workmanship to which primitive man reached. Among other objects are ‘bracers’: these are pieces of stone rubbed down to a smooth surface and pierced with a hole at each end. They are supposed to have been worn on the wrist for protection against the bowstring when let home.

Stone Celts.​—​There is a general similarity in type among the stone implements known as celts, or chisels and axes. As no well-defined line can be drawn between these, as the same object could be used as an instrument or weapon, Sir John Evans, in his exhaustive work on Ancient Stone Implements, uses the term ‘celt’ to include both, and classifies them under three heads: (1) chipped and not ground or polished; (2) chipped, with ground edge only; (3) those ground and polished completely. The last group is further sub-divided into four classes, according to shape. Some Irish archæologists consider that many of our implements present features which make this classification unsatisfactory; but as they are not yet agreed on any classification sufficiently clear and comprehensive, we shall retain the threefold division in our brief description.

The chipped implements are of flint and very rude, thick, and heavy towards the edge, with a blunt point. They resemble the Palæolithic type, and are found in the raised beaches of Larne, and are known as the ‘Larne Implements.’ Of an equally rude kind are those found in hut-sites round the coast, in the Bann Valley, and elsewhere. Implements of a similar type are found in the shell-mounds of Denmark, in Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe. They are named the ‘kitchen-midden’ type, and are considered to be the earliest worked by Neolithic man.

Of the second class many are of flint: the lower part is polished down, giving a fine cutting edge, and the upper portion is left with a rough flaked surface. Many of the larger implements belong to this class, and were the more readily fastened into the haft. These and the polished celts are made of basalt, porphyry, felstone, greenstone, shale, and other rocks; the felstone was much sought for, on account of the fine cutting edge that could be obtained in sharpening. They vary greatly in size, the average being 6 to 8 inches in length, and in breadth 2 to 3½ inches. The largest yet found is in the National Museum: it is of clay slate and about 22 inches long. They vary greatly, too, in shape, and are ovate​—​that is, of a somewhat egg-shaped form​—​or triangular, according to the general cast of the sides and edge.

In the manufacture of these objects the rough shaping was done with a suitable hammerstone, examples of which may readily be distinguished by rough chip-marks at the ends. The general method of grinding and polishing seems to have been by rubbing the implements longitudinally on a sandstone slab, and the lines of the faces thus made removed by cross or oblique rubbing with a handstone. Many of the celts are as highly polished as they could be at the present day, and it is uncertain how, or with what material, the perfect finish was given to them. The smaller specimens were doubtless set in the end of a stick, and used as chisels in the manufacture of wooden vessels or other light work. Others, there is reason to believe, were simply held in the hand, and served the double purpose of cutting instruments and hammers. By the edge, more or less sharp, animal food or integuments might be cut, or at least roughly divided, while by aid of the opposite end, which is invariably blunt or flat, marrow-bearing bones might be smashed. In all probability, however, the great majority had been the heads of axes used for every-day purposes, or as weapons of war. They are very frequently discovered in ancient river fords, the passage of which had, no doubt, been frequently contested. The larger kind were sometimes mounted in a wooden handle; but, as in the case of the perfect arrow, the discovery of a mounted implement is exceedingly rare. A few, however, have been found; and the accompanying figure shows an example. The primitive inhabitants in our own day of many lands​—​such as New Zealand​—​used implements and weapons mounted in a similar manner.

It is most likely that some remains of this class were used as missiles. We read of a missile weapon called the Lia Lamha Laich, i.e. a ‘Champion’s handstone,’ which was carried ready for use in the hollow of the shield. It is described by early writers in a manner which shows that it was attached to a line of some kind, and was recoverable after each throw. O’Curry suggests that missiles of this kind were simply our stone celts. There can be little doubt of the correctness of his opinion. In the Academy collection are three stones of that description, which at their narrow end exhibit perforations well adapted for the attachment of a string or line. The largest of these stones is slightly over 3½ inches in length. Each side is crossed by an array of scorings, admirably suited for the purpose of affording a firm grip to a champion desirous of hurling the stone with force. Around the aperture are two engraved circles. The other perforated celts are sharp and well formed, but plain. Each would prove a formidable missile when cast by a trained hand.

Axe-hammers.​—​The perforated axe-hammers show an advance in the manufacture of stone implements. Of these there are several varieties; some, and probably the earliest, are of the celt type; others are blunt at both ends forming true hammers; but the latter type come near to the modern axe-head in shape. They are well-designed, highly polished, and formed of stone selected for its hardness. The spot for the hole seems to have been first chipped; and the perforation was then made by rotatory friction with a suitable stone, piece of bone or wood, and the use of sand and water. The operation was usually done on both sides, as a section of the stone shows that the hole diminishes towards the middle. Many specimens show a cylindrical perforation, the drilling of which could be done with a piece of hollow wood, bone, or metal. Cores cut out in this way have been found in numbers in the Swiss lake-dwellings; but, as far as we are aware, no core of this kind has been found in Ireland. One head with an incomplete perforation may be seen in the Academy collection; this shows the cores, but broken on both sides. Many of the true round hammer-shaped heads are cleanly drilled, and with a metal tool. They are evidently late in date, and were probably used in the working of the finer metals, gold and silver. Two of the many fine examples in the Academy collection of the axe type are here figured. The larger is composed of serpentine; it is 8¼ inches long, and weighs about 6½ pounds. It has a broad hatchet-edge with a heavy head behind the handle. The other, found in the Shannon at Athlone, is of hornblendic syenite; it is 5½ inches in length, with grooves round the perforated sides. These are highly polished, and are among the finest specimens yet discovered in the British Isles.