Commentary. This is taken from a work ascribed to Galen, the authenticity of which, however, is very doubtful. Cornarius has attempted many corrections of the text, and we have found ourselves compelled to make other alterations.

SECT. XXVI.—ON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The weight is determined by the degree of heaviness; the measure by the capacity of the vessel: but the vessel is the measure either of a dry or of a liquid quantity. So then there are three differences of a measured quantity: first, that of weight; second, that of a dry substance, and, as it were, of such things as can be heaped; and third, that of a liquid. There being many and almost infinite varieties of weights and measures according to the practice of places, and of those who use them, we shall treat only of those which are familiar to all.

On the characters used by the Greeks for indicating weights and measures. But since some do not indicate these by whole letters, but by characters, it will be better for us, in imitation of the ancients, to explain these characters in the first place.

First, then, the letter χ having alpha placed above it, signifies chalcus (i. e. æreus), thus [symbol]; but if the χ has ο, chus (i. e. congius), thus [symbol]; but if οι, chœnix, thus [symbol]; but if η, cheme, thus [symbol]; Κ if it has ε placed above it, and a straight line obliquely intersecting the lower curvature of it indicates ceration (i. e. siliqua), thus [symbol]; but if the Κ has υ, cyathus, thus [symbol] and if ο cotyle (i. e. hemina), thus [symbol]. The circumflex line not surrounded by anything, and placed altogether obliquely, indicates obolus, thus 𐅼; but if there are two lines not surrounded, they signify two oboli, thus 𐅽, which make a gramma (i. e. scrupulum), which is indicated by γ having ρ near it, intersected by a straight line, thus [symbol]. Two lines united at one extremity so as to make an angle, like the two wings which join the straight line of the letter K, indicate drachma (or drachm), which is synonymous with holca, thus [symbol]. But the holca is properly indicated by λ with ο in its middle, thus [symbol]. But if the λ has ι, it indicates libra (a pound), thus [symbol]. Some, however, indicate a pound, by another line intersecting the line of the λ obliquely, thus [symbol]. But Γ having the letter o within its angle, signifies uncia (an ounce), thus [symbol]. The letter μ having ν in its middle, indicates mna, or mina, thus [symbol]; but if the μ has υ, it indicates mystrum, thus [symbol]; but if ε, medimnus, thus [symbol]; and if ο, modius, thus [symbol]. The letter τ followed by a ρ with a υ about it, indicates tryblium, thus [symbol]. The letter χ, if it has ε placed above it, indicates xestes (i. e. sextarius), thus [symbol]. But if it has ο written above, it signifies oxybaphum (i. e. acetabulum), thus [symbol]. Some indicate a sextarius by a χ, with a straight line intersecting it, thus [symbol]. The letter η, having μ placed above it, indicated hemina, thus [symbol]. The letter κ prefixed to ρ, and having μ placed above it, indicates ceramium, thus [symbol].

On Weights.

On the Measures of Liquids.

But if you would wish to know the measure of the weights of liquids (for there are many differences of liquid substances according to weight), we shall illustrate this by the example of oil, wine, and honey. Honey, then, is heavier than wine by a fourth part, and a tenth part more, which makes altogether almost a third part. For the same measure of honey as of wine contains the weight of the wine and a third part more. Honey is heavier than oil by one half; for it contains the whole weight of the oil, and a half part of the weight besides. Wine exceeds oil by a ninth part, for it contains the whole weight of the oil and a ninth part more. In order to make this appear more manifest, we shall subjoin, as in a diagram, the proportion of the particular measures, it being obvious that the words oil, wine, and honey, are to be understood as expressed in every line of the series.

Oribasius says, on the authority of Adamantius, that the Italian sextarius of wine contains oz. xxiv by measure, but lb. j oz. viij by weight; and that a sextarius of honey contains lb. iiss by weight.

On the Measures of Dry Substances.

But of these it is not easy to give the weight, because of dry things the difference, according to the inclination of the balance, is immense.

The end of the Seventh and Last Book of Paulus Ægineta.

Commentary. See, further, Galenus (De Pond. et Mens.); Cleopatra (De P. et M.); Celsus (v, 17); Pliny (H. N. xxi, 34); Rhemnus Fannius (De Pond. et Metr.); Marcellus Empiricus; Pollux (Onomast.); Hesychius et Suidas (pluries); Serapion (de Antid. vii, 37); Avicenna (v, 2, 8.) The best modern writers on the weights and measures of the ancients are, Arbuthnot (On Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures); Milligan (Præfatio et Notæ in Celsum); Poucton (Métrologie); Raper (Philosoph. Transact. London, 1770, 1771); J. F. Wurm (De Pond. &c.); Conger (Weights, Measures, &c. of the Greeks and Romans.)

Since a proper knowledge of this subject is indispensably necessary, in order to attain a practical acquaintance with ancient pharmacy, we shall not scruple to avail ourselves freely of the information contained in the works of the modern authorities referred to above. It will be seen, that in the following sketch, we have followed Arbuthnot very closely; indeed, it is proper to mention, that when we originally wrote this, our concluding Commentary, we were not acquainted with the labours of Wurm and Conger. We now remark that, although the later authorities agree with Arbuthnot on general principles, they differ from him on a few points, as will be perceived upon a comparison of his tables with those of Conger. The discrepance between them, we find, arises from two causes, only one of which, it will be observed, is of any practical importance. First: Arbuthnot mixes the fractional with the decimal mode of computation, whilst Conger uses the decimal method alone. Second: They give different estimates of the length of the Pes. For example, Arbuthnot states the contents of the ligula to be ¹⁄₄₈ pint, and the decimals ·117⁵⁄₁₂ solid inch; whereas Conger rates it at the decimals ·62 pint, or the decimals ·69 solid inch. Now the 48th part of a pint equals the decimal ·6, which, when added to the former decimals ·117 solid inch, amounts to ·717: the difference between this number and ·69 is ·027, which being multiplied successively by the tabular values of the ligula, cyathus, acetabulum, &c., and the product divided by the number of solid inches in a pint, gives 12 pints, or 1 gal. 2 qts. as the difference between Arbuthnot’s and Conger’s contents of the amphora. By Arbuthnot’s table the contents of the amphora is 7 gal. 1 pint, 10·66 solid inches; by Conger’s, it is 5 gal. 2 qts. 1 pint, and the decimal ·64 of a pint. For example,

The Pes is the standard from which the contents of the amphora, and of the other names of weights and measures in the table are deduced; and, as our authorities assign slightly different estimates to the length of the pes, the other measures in the table are consequently affected by this difference in the assumed standard. Arbuthnot assumes the pes to be 11·604 inches, whereas Conger, with the later authorities, makes it to be ·97075 ft. or 11·649 inches. Now the amphora, being the cube of the pes, equals, according to Arbuthnot, 1562·5112 solid inches, whereas the cube of Conger’s pes makes the amphora to contain 1580·75 solid inches.

Having thus pointed out the source of the discrepance between the tables of Arbuthnot and the later authorities, we shall now proceed with our extracts, beginning with Dr. Milligan, who, although he can have no pretensions to be reckoned an original authority on the subject, has been particularly fortunate in giving from Targa and Arbuthnot, a very lucid exposition of the weights, measures, and characters, which occur in the works of Celsus.

Extracts from Dr. Milligan’s edition of Celsus.

Characterum in Celso obvenientium Tabula.

Porro P. 𐆐, P ⍪, P Z, P 8, characteres compositi sunt, qui omnino secundum tabulam superiorem, libræ sextantem singuli significant. Pari quoque ratione, P. 𐆖. 𐆐, P. 𐆖. ⍪, P. 𐆖. Z, P. 𐆖. 8, denarii sextantem, vel unciæ quadrigesimam secundam partem designat.

Notæ Celsi lectoribus negotii nonnihil facessere solent. Cum ipso igitur, id anticipandum nobis erit; ut ponderum divisio quam decimo septimo libri quinti capite descripsit, hic quasi prærogetur.

Denarius autem (Greaves, Diss. on the Denarius) grana 62 (English Troy weight) habebat; unde unciæ essent 434, sextanti ejus 10⅓ grana; fere scrupulum dimidium, ut Celsus, loco citato, docet.

His præposites scire licet,

ά. Notam P., per se libram significare.

β´. Notam 𐆐, sextatem indifferenter significare, sed non drachmæ magis quam libræ, vel cujuslibet denominationis præcedentis, sextantem. Sic Notam P. 𐆐, uncias duas æquare.

γ´. Notam 𐆐 𐆐, duos sextantes indicare.

δ´. Notam 𐆑, sextantis dimidium representare.

έ. Notam 𐆖, Denarium indicare 𐆐 ⅐ unciæ. Quam vero notam, propter similitudinem, librarii sæpe cum X, decem indicante confundunt. Nam 𐆖, perinde ac X decem olim significabat.

Videmus ergo Notam P, libram esse; cum aliis autem notis pondo significat, quasi pondere (Anglice by weight) adeo ut ista textus P. 𐆖 𐆐, Denarii sextantem pondere, vel grana 10⅓ indicet. Pari ratione P. 𐆖, denarius pondere, vel absolute denarius, qui grana 62, est.

Porro P. 𐆐, P Z, P 8, P⍪, libræ sextantem pondere: P. 𐆖. 𐆐, P. 𐆖 Z, P. 𐆖 8, P. 𐆖 ⍪, denarii sextantem, vel unciæ quadragesimam secundam partem, designant.

Constat 1. Denarium Romanum grana Trojana Britannica 62⁴⁄₇ pependisse.

2. Pedem Romanum pollicum Britannicorum 11·604 valuisse.

Ab his sequitur, pedem Romanum, ad pendulum latitudinis Londinii per spatium inane, ad 62 Farenheiti thermometri calefactum, oscillans, rationem habere quam 11·604 ad 39·1393. Porro congium Romanum ad congium (gallon) Britannicum Imperialem, ut 189·64 ad 274, esse.

Tabula Ponderum et Mensurarum Pliniana.

Tabula Ponderum Celsiana.

Sed ut ostendemus, 1 denarius = 62 grana (Troy weight), hinc 62 grana = 1 denarius = 6 sextantes = 6 oboli; dividendo, 10⅓ grana = 1 sextans = 1 obolus.

Tabula, pondera Trojana, tam mensurarum capacitatis, tam gravitatis, Romanorum sistens.

Denario infra hanc lineam 62 grana, compendii numerique rotundandi gratia tribuimus. Qui accuratiora volunt ⁴⁄₇ illud Grævii in valorem per denariorum columnam ducant, et nostris superaddant.

Sed post tot annorum lapsum, quomodo ista pondera ad nostra Trojana referamus? Diligentia antiquariorum illud perfacile effecit. Inclytus enim J. Grævesius Angliæ decus, pondus Denarii, per plurima exemplarium centena, in Italicis aliisque cimeliis conservata, ipsa statera trutinavit: et pondus omnium meliorum denariorum ad grana Trojana 62⁴⁄₇ librare reperit. Sed cognito denarii, qui veteribus non tantum nummus fuit, sed ponderis rerum arbiter, pondere, ceterarum denominationum valorem calculo simplicissimo, in granis Trojanis habebis.

Tabula Ponderum ac Mensurarum relationis quas passim Celsus usurpavit.

His cujusvis unitatis, libræ, unciæ, denarii, congii, partes duodecimæ, hoc est unciæ, distributæ erant.

Extracts from Dr. Arbuthnot’s Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures.

1. Roman Measures of Capacity for things Liquid.

2. Attic Measures of Capacity for things Liquid.

3. Attic Measures of Capacity for things Dry.

N.B. Besides this Medimnus, which is the Medicus, there was a Medimnus Georgius, equal to 6 Roman Modii.

4. Less ancient Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to English Troy Weight.

N.B. The Roman ounce is the English avoirdupois ounce which they divided into 7 denarii as well as 8 drachms; and since they reckoned their denarius equal to the Attic drachm, this will make the Attic weights ⅛ heavier than the correspondent Roman weights.

The above Tables are thus given by Conger.

I. Roman Measures of Capacity.
For Liquids (Unit: Amphora = 5⁷⁄₁₀ gallons).

II. Grecian Measures of Capacity.
For Liquids (Unit. Μετρητής = 8½ gallons).

III. Grecian Measures of Capacity.
For things Dry (Unit. Μεδιμνος = 1½ bushels).

IV. Roman Weights.
(Unit: Libra = 10 oz. 10 dwts. 9·5 grs. Troy weight.)

The denarius was the chief silver coin among the Romans. As a weight it was the 7th part of a Roman ounce. It is from this standard that both the value of the Roman weights and coins are deduced.

The industrious, learned, and honest Mr. Greaves affirms that having in Italy and elsewhere perused many hundred Denarii consulares, he found, by frequent and exact trial, the best of them to amount to 62 grains English.

The Roman ounce is certainly our avoirdupois ounce; but I must own that I have differed in a small matter from Mr. Greaves in settling the quantity of Troy grains contained in an ounce avoirdupois. The denarius, according to my supposition, will come out 62²²⁄₄₉ grains.

That the denarius was the 7th part of the Roman ounce is clear from multitudes of passages. Celsus (v, 17): Sed et antea sciri volo in uncia pondus denariorum esse septem.

Celsus divided the denarius into six parts, which he called, unciæ; uncia being a general word for the division of any integer. This was done in imitation of the Greek physicians, who, after the manner of their country, divided their drachma into 6 oboli.

The common mark of the denarius was an X or 𐆖, in imitation of which, among the Latin physicians, it grew to an *.

Of the Roman Pondo. The pondo argenti, amongst the Romans, is a sort of numeral expression of sums of money, and is different from the common libra which consisted only of 84 denarii, or 96 drachms, for as, æs, pondo, and mina, amongst ancient authors generally pass for the same.

Pondo is an indeclinable word, and when it is joined with numbers it signifies libra; but when it is joined to other weights, it stands for the same thing as σταθμῆ, or ὅλκη in the Greek, signifying the same with pondus, or weight in general.

Of Roman Weights. The Romans used the libra, which they divided into 12 unciæ, or ounces, and the later Greeks, in imitation of them, had their litra, which they divided after the same manner.

They divided their ounce into 3 duellæ, and likewise into 6 sextulæ (sextula among the Greeks was called ἑξάγιον, and corruptly, στάιγιον). Another division of their ounce was into 4 sicilici. They likewise divided their ounce into 7 denarii. Then they divided it into 8 drachms. The 12th part of an ounce they called dimidia sextula. It was likewise divided into 24 scrupula, or rather scriptula, called by the Greeks, γράμματα.