ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES OF THE FLORA OF ALGERIA.

The seasonal distribution of the rains in any arid or semi-arid region is of great importance as a factor in shaping the character of the vegetation. For example, in the semi-arid region of the southwestern part of the United States, in the Tucson region, there are two distinct rainy seasons—the rains of winter and those of summer—and here the plants with a water-balance are an important feature; but farther to the west, where there are no summer rains, there are no succulents. In Algeria, also, there is but one rainy season and it has already been noted that the absence of plants with water-storage facilities is one of the leading characteristics of its vegetation. The seasonal distribution of rains is as follows: In the Tell, in winter it is 42 per cent, in spring 27 per cent, in autumn 27 per cent, and in summer only 4 per cent. On the High Plateau the percentages are 30, 20, and 34 for winter, spring, and autumn, and 16 for summer. In the desert the percentages for winter, spring, and autumn are 37, 39, and 20 respectively, while in summer 4 per cent of the entire rainfall occurs. On the High Plateau, however, and in the Saharan Atlas the distribution of rain is much more equable, since 16 per cent falls on the High Plateau in summer and 13 per cent in the Saharan Atlas the same season. We have, therefore, the interesting result that both in the Tell and on the desert there is a long, dry summer season, but in the intervening country more or less rain falls at this time of year. It seems very probable that a careful study of the plants of these regions would show reflected in the vegetation this peculiar character of climate.[33]

The mean relative humidity changes in a marked manner as one passes from the Tell, across the High Plateau, and enters the desert. For example, at Fort National the mean relative humidity is 85 per cent. On the desert it varies from 54.6 per cent at Ouargla to 42.6 per cent at In Salah. At times in midsummer the humidity in the desert is too low to measure with instruments; it is often 7 or 9 per cent. On the other hand, the humidity in autumn is surprisingly high, owing in part to the lower temperature and in part to the northerly winds. However, no dew is reported and probably its occurrence is rare.

With so great difference between the Tell and the desert in relative humidity is associated marked variation in the rate of evaporation. For example, at Algiers the total annual evaporation is 1,654 mm., while at Ghardaia it is 5,309 mm., which is possibly the greatest amount of evaporation thus far reported. Thus, the difference in evaporation between the Tell and the desert is nearly as the ratio 4 to 1.

The evaporation-rainfall ratios for the Tell, High Plateau, and the desert are of great interest. The seasonal evaporation-rainfall ratio for the littoral is 2.5 to 1; that of the Tell is 3.5 to 1; that of the High Plateau is 9.4 to 1; and that of the desert is 46.5 to 1. If we represent the evaporation-rainfall ratio as unity, the ratio for the Tell becomes 1.4 and the ratio of the High Plateau becomes 9 to 3.7, while the desert ratio is 18.6.

The annual and daily variations of temperatures in the desert are naturally relatively great. At Algiers the annual variation is approximately 40.7° C., while at Ghardaia it is 47.9° C. As great an annual variation as 57° C. has been observed at Ghardaia. The daily variation of temperature is especially marked on the High Plateau and the desert, ranging 17° C. more or less on the High Plateau, and 20° C. more or less on the desert. These figures are occasionally overstepped: for example, at Batna in July, 1904, when the maximum daily range was 21.8° C.; and an observation made by the writer in the open desert between Ouargla and Touggourt, in November, 1910, showed a variation of temperature of 24.7° C. between 3 o’clock in the afternoon and 6 o’clock the following morning.

The absolute maximum temperatures in southern Algeria are fairly high. At El Golea, for example, they are 47°, 46.5°, 48°, and 49.2° C., while at In Salah, about 700 miles from Algiers, the maximum temperatures for four years have been found to be 50°, 49.2°, 50°, and 48° C. It is interesting to note that at Ouargla, which is much nearer the coast than In Salah, even higher temperatures have been recorded. The maxima for as many years are as follows: 50.2°, 51.0°, 52°, 49°, and 48.4° C. Usually in winter freezing temperatures are experienced at all stations in southern Algeria.

Very little has been done on the soil temperatures in the desert region, but at Ghardaia, in July, 1911, the temperature of the soil 15 cm. beneath the surface of the soil ranged, maximum from 36° to 37° C., minimum from 31° to 33° C., giving an absolute range of 6° C.

In addition to the rainfall, the evaporation, and the temperature, there is another important climatic factor which should be taken into account, but which can not be stated in accurate terms, i.e., air-currents. It is a matter of common experience that one rarely observes a calm day on the desert, but that usually the wind, which is often of considerable force, is found to be blowing. This is unquestionably an important factor in raising the total of evaporation and therefore in increasing the arid conditions of this region. The winds which are most effective in the direction mentioned are those which come from the desert and are known as the “sirocco;” these are most likely to blow in spring and summer, although they occur in autumn also, and to a very limited degree in winter. When the winds blow from the north cooler conditions occur, the relative humidity is lower, and therefore the evaporation rate is less. The sirocco, or desert wind, crosses the Mediterranean and is sometimes felt in southern Europe. It does not generally last more than three days at one time, but at Batna, in July, 1902, it was reported for eight consecutive days. When the sirocco blows the humidity is likely to be markedly affected; for example, at Batna during the eight-day sirocco alluded to, the relative humidity fell from 25.6 to 16 per cent on the first day.

SOME EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL IN SOUTHERN ALGERIA.

Aside from the effects following a lessened annual precipitation there is also to be taken into account the increasing uncertainty of rain, or its irregularity, which is also a marked characteristic of the Saharan climate. In the desert, also, storms are likely to be of the torrential type. I did not observe vegetation characteristics which appeared directly traceable to the irregularity in rainfall, but Hayward reports an interesting condition observed by him in the southern Sahara, near Kidal, where large tracts of Mimosa had died from an unusually long period (five years) without rain.[34] It is not at all improbable that to the cause named much is directly traceable which is generally attributed to insufficient rainfall taken in the usual sense. It is probable that the vegetation of the desert—the amount as well as kind—is due to the capacity of desert forms to meet successfully the occasional, even rare, conditions, of whatever sort.

THE SOIL RELATION IN SOUTHERN ALGERIA.

From a few excavations on the hamada near Laghouat, on an analogous area by Tilrempt, on the hamada at Ghardaia, between Ghardaia and Ouargla (Gantara), and by Biskra, in each instance with analogous topographical conditions, it was learned, in short, that on formations of this sort the soil is usually less than 50 cm. in depth, although where there are rocks or in drainage depressions the depth may be greater. In the oueds, where a different type of soil occurs, greater soil depth is naturally found; also on the reg, or alluvial plain, frequently at least the flood-plain of oueds, the soil conditions are peculiar and the soil is deeper than on the higher hamada. The special significance lies not so much in the differences in the soil per se, but in the differences in the water relation occasioned by variation in depth. Owing to want of data in regard to penetration of water and its retention on the Algerian soils, the soil-moisture relation can only be gathered from inference. As regards rains, it is probable that light showers, those so slight as not to penetrate over 1.0 cm., have little or no direct influence on the perennial vegetation, but greater penetration directly benefits such plants. The first conclusion is drawn from the observation that filamentous rootlets (seemingly like the deciduous rootlets of the perennials of the Tucson region) on Haloxylon at Biskra were not found nearer the surface than 8 cm. Should the more superficial soil layer be moist for any considerable time, there would apparently be no reason why such temporary rootlets should not be formed nearer the surface. However, should there be sufficient moisture in the soil to permit absorption by roots, provided a slow rate was adequate to replace the transpiration loss, which rate was made lower by a more moist air, a slight rain would be of great significance, even if it did not penetrate to any appreciable depth. On the intensely arid desert such slight modifications of the water relations as the lowering of the temperature as winter approaches, causing decreased evaporation or rains, although actually small in amount, may be of large moment to plants. Such a condition was noted at Ghardaia,[35] where there had been a drought for over twelve months, but on the return of the cool season, with a lower evaporation rate, growth was resumed and several plants came into flower. This appeared to be not wholly the stimulus of lower temperature, since I was informed by good authority that the plants renewed their various activities whenever rains chanced to come, whatever might be the season.

From the observations last given it appears that sufficient moisture persists in the soil to tide perennials over the long periods of drought, although not in sufficient amount to permit active growth during the dry seasons. This is not an uncommon occurrence with desert plants. For example, whenever in the Tucson region the arid seasons are uncommonly long, or there has been a relatively small rain, as 25 per cent less than usual, much of the vegetation may remain dormant. Under such conditions an evergreen like Covillea tridentata drops all save the youngest and smallest leaves and maintains this nearly defoliate condition for long periods, with little other change. The plant behavior noted is always connected with insufficient moisture.

The soil in the oueds and probably also in the reg, as well as that of the dayas, is of considerable depth. The soil depth, or rather the depth before solid rock is encountered in the valley of the Oued M’Zab at Ghardaia, is from 20 to 30 meters, or even more; at the Daya Tilrempt the depth to water in one of the wells is about 95 meters. Although there is much gravel and sand in the fill of these depressions, it is likely that they afford the most favorable soil conditions in the desert for the development of a large root-system. Be that as it may, it is certain that large plants, such as Tamarix and Pistacia, occur only in such places.

Where there is most soil on the hamada, as in certain pockets near the old hill town of Ghardaia, abandoned several centuries since, one finds also the most and largest plants of this, the hamada, formation. Moreover, at the time in November when growth was noticed in the oued plants, it was also taking place in these favoring situations, about 50 meters above the level of the valley of the M’Zab and much above any possible permanent water-supply such as is afforded by a water-table.

The various habitats, therefore, not including the oases, are naturally closely associated with soil differences. These are few and, in nearly each case, to name is sufficient definition. There are dunes (areg), hamada or stony desert, reg or alluvial desert, the daya, and the flood-plain of the oueds (reg?). Modification of the hamada, reg, and oued flood-plain occurs whenever white hard-pan (caliche) is present. The soil of the reg, often that of the oued flood-plain and that of the daya, is fine alluvial and is relatively or actually deep. The hamada has the poorest soil condition, being underlaid by rock, and often or always by hard-pan as well. Large stones and boulders are embedded in the soil or lie on the surface. A modification of the hamada occurs whenever sand is strewn over its surface, even if the sand is only a few centimeters in thickness. This acts as an effectual mulch, increasing the retentive capacity of the soil, and very strikingly changes the character of the vegetation. The final habitat to be mentioned is the salt spot, or chott, where gypsum constitutes an important salt.

As regards their relative importance the habitats in southern Algeria can probably be grouped in the following sequence, a relation which very possibly holds good for the Sahara taken as a whole: Hamada, dune, oued, flood-plain, reg, daya.[36]

The habitats are unlike as regards the relation to the rainfall and its effects. This is in part due to the differences in soils, or their depth, and in part to topographical differences. By the latter the low-lying areas receive a relatively large amount of water; and since their soil is relatively deep the water is retained longer than on the hamada, for instance, where the soil is shallow.

The habitat preferences of the plants of southern Algeria are marked, as would be expected from the striking differences in the habitats. On the dunes, for example, we find drinn (Aristida pungens) as possibly the most commonly occurring and the most widely distributed sand-plant. One finds on sandy areas also Tamarix sp., Euphorbia guyoniana, Ephedra sp., Retama retam, Limoniastrum guyonianum (zaita), and other forms in smaller numbers. On the oued banks there are Tamarix, Nerium oleander (Laghouat), and, near the oases, date palm and other introduced plants. On the flood-plains will be found a large number of species, among the most typical of which are Peganum harmala, Retama retam, Ephedra, Genista sp., and Haloxylon sp. The typical plants of the dayas are Pistacia atlantica and Zizyphus lotus, the latter occurring on flood-plains and the reg as well. On the chotts we find mainly such halophytes as Anabasis articulata, Halocnemon strobilaceum, Salsola sp., Limoniastrum guyonianum, and others. The flora of the reg, so far as my observations show the conditions obtaining, is essentially like that of the flood-plains, which would be expected from the relation of the two habitats. South of Biskra, however, where the reg is probably not of fluvial origin, one finds a forest of Zizyphus lotus, and much Ephedra sp. among the most striking forms. Finally, the flora of the hamada, which has a peculiar stamp, can be briefly characterized.

On the hamada are to be found the fewest species and the smallest individuals. Probably most perennials of the hamada are under 30 cm. in height. Among the species characteristic of the hamada are Artemisia, Teucrium, Deverra, Centaurea, Acanthyllis, Thymelæa, Echinops, Henophyton, and Haloxylon. The last named is possibly the most widely distributed, occurring in other habitats as well.

ROOT-CHARACTERS AND SPECIES DISTRIBUTION IN SOUTHERN ALGERIA.

The general principles bearing upon the relation between the type of root-system and the distribution of the species, as observed in southern Algeria, can be briefly stated. Often the relation is close and apparent, but not always. For example, large perennials, such as Tamarix and Zizyphus, have an obligate specialized root-system, with a long tap-root. These plants naturally occur where there is considerable depth of soil, and hence are not to be found on the hamada, for instance, where it is shallow. On the other hand, such species as have a generalized root-system, like Acanthyllis and Haloxylon, are to be found on the hamada, but they occur also in other habitats where the soil is deep. The last type of root-system is flexible, accommodating the species to a wide range of soil conditions. In doing this the change in form is almost a change in type; for example, the roots of Haloxylon on the hamada at Ghardaia develop both laterals and a main root, but in deeper soil, as at Biskra and Ghardaia also, the laterals are nearly suppressed and the tap-root is the striking feature. A marked exception to the rule that plants with a generalized type of root-system have also the widest local distribution lies in Peganum harmala, which, having roots of this character, is nevertheless restricted to habitats where the soil is deep. The species is a half-shrub, having a perennial subterranean portion and a short-lived subaerial portion, the life of which appears to depend on the character of the water-supply. As learned by Fitting, the species can develop in its leaves a very dense sap, enabling it to extract water from a very dry soil.[37] In spite of this fact it appears to act like an annual in certain regards, requiring at all times, particularly during the most arid season, a relatively good water-supply.

Thus, in brief, a study of the relation of the root-type of the Algerian plants to the plant’s distribution leads to the same general conclusion already obtained by similar but more extended study in the Arizona desert, namely, that the connection is often a very close one and often of definitive importance. Where the root-type is an obligate type the distribution of the species is much restricted, but where it undergoes modification with changed environment the distribution of the species is much less confined. It is of interest to note especially that as a rule it is the latter kind of root-system that is developed by such plants as occur where the soil conditions are most arid, that is, on the hamada or its equivalent, and not the former, from which it follows that the generalized type of root-system is really the xerophytic type par excellence, and not the type with the most deeply penetrating tap-root, as might be supposed.

THE BIOTIC FACTOR.

It will be well to summarize some of the main facts regarding another and important environmental feature of the Saharan plants, namely, the relation to herbivorous animals. In the western Sahara, wherever there is any forage, animals which subsist on it are to be found. Of the wild animals the gazelle is probably the most numerous and the most destructive. All travelers across the desert have noted the presence of this animal. In the northern Sahara Tristram remarked its abundance fifty or more years ago, and it may be frequently seen by the traveler at the present time. In addition to the native animals, the domestic animals, especially the sheep, goats, and camels, are very numerous, very destructive of plants, and range great distances for food. As a result, an area around every well or oasis, extending as far as 40 kilometers or even much more than this,[38] is repeatedly grazed over and has been utilized in this manner for centuries. As a result only the poisonous or the distasteful species, or the plants especially well armed, are left undisturbed to grow and reproduce, while the balance are more or less consumed, frequently so much so as to be quite unrecognizable. From the large number of camels, sheep, and goats which range the desert pastures it might be concluded that the leading types of plants to be found would be such as are not eaten by them, but this is not the case. On the other hand, possibly the most generally consumed form is Haloxylon, which grows on the oued flood-plain, the reg, and the hamada. Thus, so far as this type is concerned, there is probably little or no diminution in numbers because of the attacks of animals.

A similar conclusion would doubtless be drawn after study of other forms, but there lies at least one notable exception, namely, the influence of animal grazing on the distribution of the betoum (Pistacia atlantica). The betoum, which is the largest arboreal species in the Sahara, is confined to the region of the Dayas; that is, to the country immediately south of Laghouat. The tree is unarmed and is eagerly sought after by all herbivorous animals for its foliage and tender twigs. Owing to the presence of such animals, wild and domesticated, the young tree would have no chance to survive were it not that, growing in association with it, is the jujube (Zizyphus lotus), which is armed and is not eaten by any animals. The jujube affords safe protection for the seedling betoum, and in its capacity as nurse prevents predatory attacks by animals during the critical period. The survival (and probably the distribution as well) of the betoum is mainly conditioned on the presence of its protector.

When I first visited southern Algeria it seemed improbable that any portion of it, or at least any portion that I should be likely to see, would exhibit the possibilities of plant growth as unaffected by herbivorous animals. But finally there were found two classes of plant formations in which animals either had not intruded at all, or not to a harmful degree. One of these is the wide flood-plain of the Oued M’Zab, or one of its tributaries, lying about 50 kilometers east of Ghardaia. Despite the fact that the flocks are very numerous in the vicinity, and that the flood-plain is on the regular caravan route between Ghardaia and Ouargla, there are few signs of grazing. The entire plain is so well covered by shrubs that the vegetation gives the tone to the landscape—a rare thing in the desert. Here one finds Retama retam, Genista saharæ, and Ephedra sp., as well as other species in fair abundance. Thus the plants are not only numerous, but are of a good size. It should be observed that on either side of the flood-plain, on the hamada, scarcely any vegetation may be found.

The second formation referred to is that of protected areas, especially at Ghardaia, which have been little disturbed at any time, and portions of them not at all disturbed for centuries. These are the cemeteries. Such areas are situated not only in the floor of the M’Zab Valley, where the plant conditions are relatively favorable, but also on the hamada, where they are relatively very unfavorable. Both in the valley and on the hamada, as well as on the valley wall between the two wherever there chances to be soil, the plants are relatively numerous and of fair size. This fact has been detailed under the section on Ghardaia and need not be more than mentioned here.

From these two general observations (exceptions to the usual conditions), that on the flood-plain of the Oued M’Zab and the cemeteries at Ghardaia, it is concluded that the grazing of animals has had a very marked influence in modifying the flora of southern Algeria. So far as could be told from the limited opportunity to observe, the modification has gone along on at least two lines, which are, of course, closely related. The size of the plants eaten is much under normal for the particular locality, and at the same time the capacity of the plant for reproduction has been greatly lessened. That such species as are not touched by animals have not spread more rapidly, or even have not become the dominant forms, is an interesting problem, and one that would have to be worked out for each species. It can be suggested, however, that the restricted distribution probably lies in the fact that the struggle of desert plants is mainly with an adverse physical environment rather than with one another, and that such conditions would not be affected by grazing animals. For example, large shrubs do not occur on the hamada, hence Tamarix, Zizyphus, and Rhus, as well as Peganum harmala, are limited to situations where the soil is fairly deep and the water relatively favorable. Euphorbia guyoniana also occurs only in sandy soil, and the number of plants limited in their distribution to soil characters is necessarily a large one.

COMPARISON OF SOME GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VEGETATION OF SOUTHERN ALGERIA AND OF SOUTHERN ARIZONA.

In crossing the plains of southern Algeria one is likely to call a region barren when close inspection will show that this is not the condition. In fact, it was found that areas on the plain, 16 by 16 meters in extent, carried as many as 330 or more perennials, although a casual glance did not reveal the presence of any conspicuous vegetation.[39] Both of these conditions are the immediate result of the small rainfall. The reason for the large number of plants in certain areas, as above noted, lies in their small size, since it would probably be difficult to find an equal number on this area were the plants as large, for example, as in southern Arizona. The fact that the perennials are inconspicuous is in part because they are small and in part because the leaves are either absent or greatly reduced.

When viewed somewhat more closely, one finds other features in which the flora of southern Arizona and of southern Algeria are unlike. Travelers, botanical as well as non-botanical, have described the armed condition of the Saharan plants until the impression is general that such plants as persist from season to season are usually well provided with spines. What may be the proportion of armed to unarmed plants in the northern Sahara I do not know, but to a person familiar with the plants of southern Arizona, where spinose forms are very numerous, the Algerian plants do not appear especially well protected. As this appears to be a general condition, it is scarcely an accident that the spines of the American species of the genus Zizyphus, for example, are much better developed than are those of the Algerian representative of the same genus. From the circumstance that grazing by wild as well as by domestic animals is very destructive in Algeria, apparently more so than in Arizona, where the results of grazing are scarcely to be noted, the general facts regarding spininess in plants, as given above, suggest the really small influence such animals play in shaping such a character in desert plants.

Finally, it need only be remarked that plants with a water-balance are wanting in southern Algeria, and that they constitute one of the striking features of the flora of the southwestern United States.