Observations for determining Altitudes of Stations in Marocco.

By John Ball.

The instruments provided for the measuring of heights during our journey in Marocco were, in the first place, two mercurial barometers belonging to Sir J. Hooker, which were unfortunately left behind at the last moment by his attendant who had them in charge. Mr. Ball carried an aneroid barometer, by Secrétan of Paris, which, during many mountain journeys before and since, has performed very satisfactorily; and Mr. Maw had a small pocket aneroid of ordinary construction, not deserving of much confidence.

At Sir J. Hooker’s request, Mr. Carstensen, then British Vice-consul, and M. Beaumier, French Consul at Mogador, both recorded observations of the barometer and thermometer twice daily (at 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. ) during the period of our stay in and near to the range of the Great Atlas. Mr. Carstensen’s instrument was a mercurial barometer, apparently a moderately good instrument; but, inasmuch as it showed itself more sluggish than M. Beaumier’s instrument, and the amplitude of its variations was less considerable, its records do not appear to deserve equal confidence. On rendering the measurements into millimetres, and correcting both instruments so as to bring the indications to 0° C. at the sea level, the observations with the mercurial barometer fall short of those of the other instrument by a mean difference of 5·5 mm., the chief cause of the discrepancy being apparently due to the scale of the former being unduly low. Comparing corrected observations for ten days of very settled weather, during which the utmost range of either instrument did not exceed 2½ millimetres, we have the mean pressure

The error of the last-mentioned instrument does not probably exceed 1 mm. in excess of the true pressure, and, if the observations of the mercurial barometer were used, it would be expedient to apply to them a correction of +4·5 mm. But, in addition to the circumstances already mentioned, it must be noted that Mr. Carstensen’s observations extend over but eighteen days; while M. Beaumier’s record covers twenty-six days, from May 11 to June 5 inclusive. For these reasons it has appeared best to make use exclusively of the record supplied by M. Beaumier. His instrument was an aneroid barometer of the construction adopted by its maker (Leja), called in Paris baromètre holostérique. The readings were recorded daily at 10 A.M. and 4 P.M., and are carried to intervals of the quarter of a millimetre.

The first questions that arise in applying observations to the determination of altitudes relate to the corrections applicable to each instrument. The corrected readings of Secrétan’s aneroid at Tangiers, and during the voyage between that place and Mogador, varied from 760 mm. to 761·5 mm., and may safely be assumed to be nearly correct; but, on arriving at Mogador, they fell considerably. Inasmuch, however, as on comparison with the mercurial barometer at the British Consulate the difference was inconsiderable, the fall was attributed to the condition of the weather at that time. It was only on our return to Mogador from the interior, when a direct comparison between Secrétan’s and Leja’s instruments disclosed a difference of 7·3 mm. between the readings, and a further comparison between the recorded observations of the mercurial barometer and M. Beaumier’s instrument showed a difference of about 5·5 mm. between the scales of those instruments, that it became clear that Secrétan’s aneroid had suffered some change at or about the time of landing at Mogador. A careful comparison of all the observations leaves no ground for supposing that this arose from any gradual process; and it seems almost certain that by one of those accidents to which the best aneroids are exposed, a casual blow, received about the time of landing at Mogador, caused the fall of 7 or 8 millimetres which was then observed. It is quite possible that more complete accuracy would have been attained by applying a correction of —1 mm. to M. Beaumier’s observations; but it was thought more convenient to treat the discrepancy between the instruments as altogether due to error in Secrétan’s instrument, and to apply to its readings in South Marocco the correction +7·3 mm. So far as regards the altitudes determined by comparison with the Mogador observations, the difference between the method adopted and that above suggested is quite insensible; but with respect to the altitudes given in the following table as determined between April 29 and May 10, wherein the barometric pressure at Mogador is assumed at 760 mm., it is clear that, if the error of Secrétan’s instrument has been overcorrected to the extent of 1 millimetre, the altitudes given in the table should be increased by some 12 or 13 metres.

The next corrections requiring consideration are those arising from the temperature of the instrument at the time of observation, and in reference to this point the best makers of aneroid barometers are much open to criticism. They assert, and with approximate accuracy, that in the best instruments compensation for the effect of temperature on the instrument is provided; but they forget that in order to compare the indications of the aneroid with those of the mercurial barometer, or to apply to them any of the formulæ used for calculating altitudes, it is necessary to know at what temperature the column of mercury stands, the length of which is assumed to be shown by the scale of the aneroid. In point of fact, the scale of the latter instrument, when carefully laid down, is determined by direct comparison with the mercurial barometer under varying pressures, and the proper course would be to inscribe on the case of the aneroid a record of the temperature at which that comparison was made. From inquiries made of some of the best makers it seems probable that the best approximate correction is obtained by assuming the reading of the aneroid to correspond with that of the mercurial barometer at the temperature of 15° C., and this has been applied in the annexed table.

The height of M. Beaumier’s instrument above the sea level being about 10 metres, a small correction of +0·9 mm. has been made in order to obtain the corrected reading adopted in the following table for the ‘Mogador barometer.’

As most of our observations at stations in South Marocco were necessarily made either early in the morning or late in the evening, while those at Mogador were registered at 10 A.M. and 4 P.M., the pressure at the latter place corresponding to the hour of each of our observations has been found by intercalation. There is of course an obvious possibility of error here; but, except on a few occasions, when the changes of pressure were considerable and rapid, the amount is probably trifling.

It is familiar to all who have given attention to this subject, that one of the chief causes of error in the results obtained from barometric observations for altitude arises from the impossibility, in the present state of knowledge, of obtaining with tolerable accuracy the temperature of the stratum of air lying between the lower and the higher stations. This is especially true in climates such as that of South Marocco, where the sky is commonly clear, and the air relatively dry. The cooling of the surface at night, and the heating in the sunshine by day, have an effect on the layer of air in contact with that surface, and still more on the traveller’s thermometer, which at the best is imperfectly protected from radiation, out of all proportion to the actual cooling or heating effect on the air not in immediate proximity to the soil. As far as circumstances permitted, it was sought to take observations about an hour after sunrise and very soon after sunset, so as to diminish to the utmost this source of error.

It remains true, in the writer’s opinion, that when all these sources of error in the determination of heights by means of the barometer have been put together, there remains one surpassing all the others in amount which altogether escapes our means of correction. The formulæ employed for the reduction of observations to numerical results are, and must be, based on the assumption that a condition of equilibrium between the forces acting on the instruments at each station has been attained; whereas the utmost that can be asserted is that there is a continual tendency towards such equilibrium, requiring a variable time to effect it. But before equilibrium can be attained new changes occur, and the process of adjustment recommences. Even as regards stations near enough to be within sight of each other, repeated observations, however carefully corrected, give sensibly different numerical results, and when the stations are widely separated the discrepancies become serious in amount. The best course for a traveller in a mountain country is to endeavour to ascertain as nearly as possible the altitude of some fixed station by taking the mean of several observations compared with his distant station, and then to determine the altitude of the higher points reached near to such fixed station by comparison with an assumed reading of the barometer at the latter as derived from intercalation.

The altitudes of the stations at Hasni and Iminteli, given in the following table, derived from several comparisons with the Mogador readings, are probably nearly correct. That of Arround, as derived from comparison with Mogador at a time when the oscillations of pressure were relatively great and rapid, does not deserve much confidence; and the mean of two comparisons with Hasni has been preferred, the more readily as this nearly agrees with the result obtained from a boiling-water observation.

For the reduction of our observations the formula proposed by Count St. Robert, and first published in the Philosophical Magazine for 1864, has been preferred, and, for convenience, the tables based on that formula, published by the same author in the Memoirs of the Academy of Turin for 1867, have been used.

It is true that in the construction of the latter tables a value has been assumed for the constant expressing the rate of diminution of density in the atmosphere corresponding to uniform increase of altitude that is not constantly correct; but it would appear that the error resulting from this is but trifling. In regard to the greatest elevation attained by us in the Atlas, the difference in the measurement obtained by using the tables from that ascertained by accurate computation from the formula does not exceed 5 metres.

It may here be remarked that the altitudes inserted in some letters from Sir J. Hooker to the late Sir Roderick Murchison, which were published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for 1871, and also most of those given by Mr. Maw in a paper presented to the Geological Society in January, 1872, were roughly calculated at the time when the party were

Table of Altitudes, deduced from Barometric Observations in Marocco.

travelling in Marocco, and before the necessity for a considerable correction to the readings of Secrétan’s aneroid had become apparent. The difference arising from this and other corrections applicable to the highest points reached by us is considerable, and requires a deduction of about 500 feet from the estimated height of the Tagherot pass, and about the same from the calculated altitude of Djebel Tezah. The corresponding error in the calculated altitudes for the low country stations, e.g. those between Mogador and Marocco, averages about 200 feet.

J. B.

Itineraries of Routes from the City of Marocco through the Great Atlas.

The information respecting the routes here given was supplied by a Jew named Salomon ben Daoud, an inhabitant of the city of Marocco engaged in trading operations with the natives of the portions of the Great Atlas wherein the authority of the Sultan is recognised. In the absence of more accurate reports, it appears desirable to publish this slight contribution to the topography of a country altogether unknown to Europeans, excepting so far as we were able to visit a few of the places enumerated. To assist those who may hereafter seek to follow any of these routes, the names of places inserted in the French map of Marocco by Captain Beaudouin, or in the map annexed to this volume, are distinguished by an asterisk. The distances are reckoned by hours, one of which may be counted as equivalent to four miles in the plain, and to a somewhat lesser distance in the mountain. A day’s journey usually varies from eight to ten hours. The spelling of the names is made to agree with that adopted throughout this work, the vowels having the same sounds as in most European languages, and not those peculiar to our country.

ROUTE 1.
Marocco to Demenet, and Excursion from Demenet to places in the neighbourhood.

This road is undulating, with hills and valleys, or hollows.

From Demenet cross over the river Emhasser, and proceeding for one hour on the mountain you will reach a place called Iminifri, on a high mountain, which contains an opening or pass only just large enough for one person to creep through on his hands and knees, the length of the pass being about 100 yards; and when through it you will find open ground on the top of the high mountain. There will be seen remains (ruins) of old Christian buildings, in which live many birds. From the upper part of this mountain overhanging parts (or cliffs) branch out downwards against the mountain, towards the River Tor, of 500 yards long; but these overhanging parts do not reach the water of the river.

[The places here spoken of apparently lie N.W. of Demenet—the El Acchabi of the French map. The river Tor is probably the Oued Lakdeur of the same map.]

ROUTE 2.
Demenet to the Sources of the Oued Tessout.

In Aït Emdoual is a river one day’s journey long. There are inhabitants along the river. From this to Aït Affan one day’s journey over barren desert ground uninhabited.

Tel Khedit is a mountain, and contains the source of the river Tessout; and on this mountain the snow remains both in summer and winter.

[This route agrees in many respects with the indications of the French map. The name Aït Chihatchen, there laid down south of Demenet, is probably the Aït Cid Hassan of the itinerary. It appears, however, that the importance of the mountain chain on the north side of the upper valley of the Tessout must be much exaggerated by the hill-shading on the map. The main chain of the Atlas is undoubtedly that on the southern side of that valley. The head of the valley is, on the French map, united to the province of N’tifa. A priori probability and the wording of the itinerary suggest that it all belongs to Demenet.]

ROUTE 3.
Marocco to N’tifa.

[None of these places seem to be laid down on the French map, unless Tendalet be the same place as Tamlelt. N’tifa is properly the name of the province. The particular place so named by our informant, is probably the residence of the Kaïd, or Governor. It seems likely that this is very near the place marked Bezzou on the French map.]

ROUTE 4.
Demenet to N’tifa.

On this road is found the Gum Euphorbium plant, or tree, and the trees producing the brown gum arabic. From N’tifa forward is the country of the tribe Aït Attab where there is little or no government among the people.

ROUTE 5.
Tour in the Mountains East and South-east of Marocco.

These being the mountains of the Mesfioua country.

ROUTE 6.
Tour in the Mountains South of Marocco.

There is the river Ourika passing between mountains. Crossing, and going up to the left, the first village is Achliz. The chief, or sheik, who governs Ourika lives here, he being under the orders of his superior, Ibrahim el Graoui, who lives in Marocco. From Achliz you go to Azrou Miloul, and from this to Tourit. Here are salt wells or springs. From Tourit you go to Agadir which is on the top of the mountain, from this to Timluzen, and from this to the Zaouia. The before last stages from Ourika are all half an hour’s distance one from the other. From Tourit to Sissag on high mountains. [Apparently Sissag is the name of the Zaouia.] These are the villages on the left side of the river until Sissag. The villages on the right hand side of the river are as follows:—The first is Alzli; from this you go to Tafzhia, and from this to Anrar, and from this to Amsin; from this to Assgher, and from this to Arzballo; from this to Egremon, and from this to Ashni, and from this to Esurgraf; this mountain is covered with snow. These are the Ourika mountains near to Marocco town, besides the higher mountains which are above these we have mentioned.

[All the places here mentioned are in the Ourika valley. The left and right sides are those on the left and right of the stream to a person ascending the valley, contrary to the usage in European countries where those terms are supposed to refer to one following the course of the stream.]

ROUTE 7.
Description of the Roads of Ghighaya.

From this to El Anraz; here is a village called Amareen, three hours distant—it leads to Immaregen; and from this one hour’s journey will bring the traveller to a place called Agadir Tagadurt el Bour, and from this last is the commencement of the road or highway to the province of Sous.

[There can be no doubt that the district here rendered Ghighaya from the Hebrew, is the same as we wrote down as Reraya, the r in the latter name having a guttural sound without an equivalent in any European language known to us. The Souk el Ad, or Sunday Market, is of course somewhere near to the Sanctuary of Moülai Ibrahim. Although we fail to identify any of the villages named above, it seems probable that the place spoken of as Agadir Tagadurt el Bour, is the same as Arround, where we passed two nights.]

ROUTE 8.
Description of the Road between Ghighaya and Ourika.

This being a road to a mountain containing snow, in the country of Ghighaya. From Tranghert, six hours’ journey to a mountain called Ousertik, within the jurisdiction of the Governor, Kaïd Ibrahim el Graoui.

[The writer here gives an alternative route from Marocco to Ourika, slightly longer than the direct way given in Route 6, and then refers, obviously not from personal knowledge, to a mountain path connecting Ourika with one or other of the two valleys included in the district of Reraya or Ghighaya. Tranghert is probably a village in the western branch of the Ourika valley.]

Salomon ben Daoud.

Notes on the Geography of South Marocco.

By John Ball.

Some remarks upon the geography of South Marocco seem to be called for from a writer who has ventured to put forth a new map, largely differing from those hitherto published; but the subject is encompassed with so much difficulty, and the amount of accurate information available is so limited, that a prudent writer must be content to regard most of his own conclusions as merely provisional, and liable to be modified or set aside by the results of further exploration, whenever this shall become practicable. In the mean time, some good may be effected by clearing the ground of some received errors that are absolutely disproved by facts now ascertained.