It was more than 20 years after the expedition of Willoughby to the north-east that the efforts towards the north-west were commenced. Their inception was due to Martin Frobisher, one of the greatest of the Elizabethan seamen.

Born at Altofts, in the parish of Normanton in Yorkshire, about 1535, Martin was a nephew of Francis Frobisher, who had been Mayor of Doncaster. His father, Bernard Frobisher, died in Martin’s infancy, and his mother sent the boy, being one of several children, to the care of her brother, Sir John Yorke, in London. Martin is described as “a youth of great spirit and bold courage, and natural hardiness of body.” His uncle seems to have found him more than he could manage, so he sent him to sea. Martin’s first voyage was to the coast of Guinea in 1554, and for many years he continued to make voyages to Africa and to the Levant, becoming a thorough sailor, but without much book learning. Yet he was deeply impressed with the importance of Arctic discovery very early in his career. His great ambition was to lead an expedition and to discover the strait which must, he thought, lead into the ocean discovered by Magellan on the north side of America, as Magellan’s Strait leads into it on the south.

Frobisher saw service in Ireland, and it has been suggested with much probability that he there became acquainted with Sir Henry Sidney, the Lord Deputy. This was the friend of the young King, Edward VI, who on the part of his sovereign, took an active interest in the expedition of Sir Hugh Willoughby, and obtained the appointment of Richard Chancellor as second in command. Sidney would naturally take an equal interest in the project of Frobisher, would encourage his enthusiasm, and exert his influence to enable him to realise his ardent longing. So it was that Sidney’s brother-in-law, Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick, took the matter in hand, brought it before Queen Elizabeth, and secured her approval.

The discourse of Sir Humphrey Gilbert to prove a passage to Cataya and the East Indies was printed in 1576, but it had been written some years before, and its powerful advocacy was no small help to the persuasions of Frobisher. It is divided into ten chapters. The first is to prove the existence of a passage from authority, in the second is the proof from reason, and the third shows that America must be an island. The next four chapters discuss the traditions that the passage had been sailed through44, and the eighth contests the reasons given by Anthony Jenkinson for preferring a north-east passage. In the ninth it is argued that a north-west route will be more commodious for traffic, and in the tenth the manifold advantages of the discovery are set forth. At the close of his discourse Sir Humphrey exclaims: “He is not worthy to live at all who for fear or danger of death shunneth his country’s service or his own honor, since death is inevitable, and the fame of virtue immortal.”

The advocacy of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and the support of the Queen’s ministers and courtiers enabled Frobisher to make progress in collecting funds. A difficulty was raised by the Muscovy Company, represented by Mr Michael Lock, who maintained that the voyage was contrary to the Company’s privileges. But the Privy Council ordered the Company either to make the attempt itself, or to grant a licence to Frobisher to do so, and the latter alternative was preferred. Moreover Frobisher won over Michael Lock to his side, a most important ally.

Lock’s father was an Alderman of London, and Michael was born in 1532. The father, Sir William Lock, was a mercer, and was also Agent-beyond-the-seas in divers affairs for Henry VIII. After keeping his son at school until he was 13, he sent him to France and Flanders to learn the language. Michael afterwards passed through nearly all the countries of Christendom, had command of a large ship in the Levant trade for three years, and then settled in London as a merchant. He was an ardent geographer, and had made a large collection of books, maps, and instruments. He became an enthusiastic partner of Frobisher, and they together began to sell shares in the venture, and succeeded in raising £875 for the projected voyage. This sum was quite inadequate, but Lock patriotically came forward and guaranteed the rest on his own personal security.

Two small vessels, the Michael of 25 tons, and the Gabriel of 20 tons, were fitted out in the Thames, with a small pinnace of 7 tons to be used in going ahead to sound and look out, and to explore bays and inlets. Michael Lock’s maps and charts were diligently examined and discussed, and frequent councils were held at which Frobisher and Lock were assisted by Stephen Burrough, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and the learned Dr Dee. The master and mate of the Gabriel, Christopher Hall and James Best, also received instructions from Dr Dee in the use of instruments and in computation. At length all was ready. On June 17th, 1576, the little squadron anchored off Greenwich Palace, and fired a salute. The Queen stood at an open window and waved her hand, also sending the adventurers a gracious message that she had “good liking of their doings.” Proceeding down the river the crew received the Sacrament at Gravesend, and on the 18th Harwich was left astern and the voyage began.

Passing the Shetland Islands on June 26th a furious gale was encountered and the little pinnace foundered with the loss of four men. The Michael, commanded by one Owen Gryffyn, deserted soon afterwards and returned with a report that the Gabriel was lost. Frobisher held resolutely on his way and sighted the south coast of Greenland, which was supposed to be a (fabulous) land shown on the fanciful Zeno chart with which he was supplied and called Frieslanda. The little Gabriel continued her westward course with 18 men all told, amidst drifting icebergs and dense fogs. Another gale sprang up with a fearful sea, coming on so suddenly that there was no time to shorten sail. Her canvas pressed the ship down until she was on her beam ends, and the men were seized with despairing panic. The captain rushed up with an axe in his hand, ran along the channels on the weather side, and cast off the foretack, relieving her of pressure from the foresail. He then ran aft and cut away the mizzen mast. The ship slowly began to right herself, and was got before the wind. Seeing this the affrighted crew made a rush to cut away the main shrouds, thinking further relief from pressure would complete what their captain had done. But Frobisher drove them back, ordering them to desist. As it was, the mainmast was sprung, and had to be fished.

On the 28th July high land was sighted, receiving the name of Queen Elizabeth’s Foreland. But the ice was floating in masses, and a huge iceberg split up close to the little craft as she drifted past. A landing was effected on an island, which was named after Christopher Hall, the master. The men brought back grass and flowers, and a piece of black stone which was destined to have a malign influence on Frobisher’s project of discovery. He sailed up a channel with land on either side, which received the name of Frobisher’s Strait, and succeeded in establishing apparently friendly traffic with the Eskimos. But the traffic ended in a catastrophe. The boat, with five men, went away and, contrary to orders, pulled out of sight of the ship to barter for skins. Neither men nor boat were ever heard of again. It was a great calamity, for there was no other boat and the men were a serious loss. Frobisher succeeded in capturing one savage, with his kayak, but this was poor consolation. On the 26th August the return voyage was commenced and by the 9th October the Gabriel was once more in the Thames.

Owing to the false report of the Michael, Frobisher and his people had been given up for lost. They had a hearty welcome and the gallant leader was well received at court. All would have proceeded satisfactorily for the resumption of the work of discovery, if it had not been for the black stone. Michael Lock got hold of it, forgetting that “all that glisters is not gold.” He took it to the Assay Master of the Tower who pronounced it to be iron pyrites. Then he went to another assayer named Wheeler, who made the same report. Next he appealed to an Italian named Aquello, who was more complaisant. He produced a little gold dust. When he was asked how he had found gold where the other assayers declared there was none, his cynical reply was “Bisogno sap ere adulare la natura.”

Lock then spread the report that there were rich gold mines in Frobisher Strait. There was great excitement. A gold-mining company was formed called the “Cathay Company,” and a charter was granted on the 17th March, 1577. The Queen took shares to the amount of £1000, and lent one of her ships, the Aid of 200 tons. She named the newly discovered land “Meta Incognita.” The subscriptions came in rather slowly, but Lock guaranteed the balance, and became Governor of the Company.

Frobisher took command of the second expedition on May 25th, 1577. It consisted of three vessels. The Aid, the Queen’s vessel, was Frobisher’s flag-ship, with George Best as his lieutenant, Christopher Hall as master, and 30 gentlemen volunteers and soldiers. The Gabriel of 20 tons was commanded by Edward Fenton and had a crew of 18 men, with William Smyth as master. Gilbert Yorke, possibly a cousin of Frobisher, had the Michael of about 25 tons, with a crew of 16 men. They sailed from Blackwall on the 26th May, and next day the Vicar of Gravesend came on board the Aid and administered the Sacrament to officers and men.

On July 7th land, which was believed to be the Frieslanda of Zeno, was sighted, and an attempt was made to cross or get through the ice and land, but it proved impracticable. This was of course Greenland. Sailing onwards the Michael lost her topmasts in a gale but succeeded in regaining her consorts, and a few days afterwards the land discovered during the first voyage was reached. The object of the expedition was to load the ships with the black micaceous stones which were supposed to be gold ore, and had nothing to do with Arctic discovery. The gallant admiral, however, thought far more of rescuing the men who were believed to have been captured by the Eskimos on his former voyage than of the imaginary gold ore. He tried every means, attempted negotiation with the savages, and made searches, but all in vain. Some of their clothes were found in the Eskimo tents, and there can be little doubt that they were murdered. The ships returned with their cargoes of black stones, and the voyagers received just praise from the Queen. Her Majesty “rejoiced at their great forwardness in this so dangerous toiling and faithful attempt, especially she praised so good order of government, so good agreement, every man so ready in his calling to do whatsoever the General should command.” Elizabeth had rightly formed a very high opinion of the ability and capacity of Martin Frobisher.

The worthless character of the stones was not yet exposed and the feeling was stronger than ever for further supplies. There was to be a colony formed at the Countess of Warwick’s Sound. A timber house was embarked, and miners were engaged from Cornwall. There were many gentlemen volunteers, and no less than 15 vessels were engaged:—

The Queen received the captains at Greenwich, and threw a gold chain round the neck of “her loving friend Martin Frobisher.” The fleet sailed from Dover on May 31st, 1578, and shaped a course down channel. The Admiral had issued an order prohibiting swearing or card-playing, and ordering that there was to be Divine service daily in every ship. Most of the ships were chartered, and the Admiral had not the same control over them as if they had been Queen’s ships, which increased his difficulties.

After crossing the North Atlantic Frobisher again sighted Greenland, still supposed to be the Frieslanda of the Zeno map, and once more attempted to land. This time he was successful. Taking the pinnace, and accompanied by Fenton and Christopher Hall, he forced his way through the pack ice, and reached a bay where there were Eskimos in their kayaks and a summer encampment of tents. He intended to continue his discoveries but a dense fog came on, and he was obliged to return and attend to the needs of the fleet. Frobisher was thus the first to land in Greenland since the colony was abandoned to its fate by the Norwegians.

During eight days the ships were crossing the ice-laden strait, making for the land of the false gold ore which had been visited during the two previous voyages. They were in much danger, encountering furious gales of wind, amidst icebergs and drifting packs. One day there was a violent concussion on board the Salomon, as if she had run stem on to an iceberg; and a whale rose under her bows. She was brought up all standing, and soon afterwards the whale was seen dead, floating on the surface. Another vessel lost her topmasts in a gale, but at last land was in sight and they were off Frobisher’s Strait. The entrance, however, was blocked by the pack. The Queen’s Foreland and Lock’s Island, names given in the previous voyages, could be seen over the wide extent of ice.

Frobisher attempted to force his way through. Sending the pinnace ahead to seek out leads, he entered the pack in the Aid, with the other vessels following in line. There were numerous icebergs, and some vessels, going very slow, ran against them, but without receiving much damage. At last the Aid was stopped by a floe of no great width, and men were sent in boats to attempt to cut through it. Up to this time the weather had been fine, but suddenly a gale of wind sprang up, closed the pack between the ships and the open sea, and placed them in great danger. Several were closely beset, others severely nipped. The Dennis was forced against an iceberg and sank, the crew being saved by the boats sent to cut the floe. Every contrivance was resorted to that they could devise to save the rest of the fleet. The loss of the Dennis was very serious, as she carried half the prepared timber for the house or fort for the proposed colony. The great peril lasted for 13 hours, during which time the men, expecting death every moment, worked like true English seamen. Next morning the wind veered round and drifted away the pack between the ships and the open sea. This was on the 3rd July. On the 9th another effort was made to reach the land. A very strong current was noted to the south-west “the noise of the stream being like the waterfall of London Bridge,” The largest iceberg, which they called “Salomon’s Porch” was measured and found to be 330 feet high.

They were at the entrance of what is now known as Hudson’s Strait, too far to the south. Frobisher suspected this, but a wide opening leading westward was before him, and he cared much more for discovery than for the supposed gold ore. After all, discovery was included in his instructions. Christopher Hall was strong against the attractive openings being Frobisher’s former strait, and words ran high. The Admiral lost his temper and was in a great rage. Hall was mutinous and would not keep company. The Aid entered the newly-discovered strait, followed by six or seven other vessels with like-minded loyal captains. Frobisher went on to the westward for six or seven days, meeting with natives on shore with whom he bartered, and noting much animal life. He had discovered what is now called Hudson’s Strait. The great explorer longed to push on, but there was his duty to the Cathay Company, his duty to bring home shiploads of worthless stones. So, on the first fine day, Frobisher had to observe for latitude, and of course found himself 60 miles too far south45.

His duty obliged him to give up his discoveries and return to the sordid work of loading the ships with black stones. On the 28th July the Aid was forced through the pack into the Countess of Warwick’s Sound, other ships following, and the miners set to work collecting their rubbish. The first part of the voyage was completed, and many dangers had been overcome, difficulties encountered, and experience in ice navigation gained. A solemn service of thanksgiving was held. The chaplain was Master Wolfall, a patriotic clergyman who had given up a good living to serve his country in a dangerous enterprise. He now preached an eloquent sermon of thanksgiving and encouragement, shortly afterwards administering the Sacrament to the crews on shore.

Autumn was approaching. The Thomas of Ipswich had already deserted. As half the timber intended for the fort was lost in the Dennis it was resolved that the idea of a colony must be abandoned. The ships were accordingly loaded and began the return voyage. Before their arrival, however, it had at last been discovered that the stones were worthless. The bubble burst, the shareholders had to pay, and Frobisher for a time was reduced to poverty. But the great Queen knew his worth, and did not lose sight of him.

Frobisher had many good and loyal comrades in his Arctic voyages. First and foremost was George Best, who wrote the narrative of the voyage; next Christopher Hall, a fine seaman but not equally loyal; Edward Fenton, who afterwards served against the Spanish Armada; Gilbert Yorke, who did good service afterwards in the West Indies, his Arctic service standing him in good stead; and Charles Jackman, pilot of the Aid, an excellent and loyal officer who lost his life, as already recorded, in the North-east Passage enterprise with Arthur Pet.

The provisions supplied for Frobisher’s voyages were sufficient if they were good of their kind. They consisted of biscuit (16 tons for five months for 115 men), meal 30 tons, beer, wine, salt beef and pork, peas, stock-fish, butter, cheese, oatmeal, rice (a small quantity), raisins, almonds, and liquorice, sea coal 30 tons, wood 14 tons, and charcoal. The whole was in 240 barrels of 4 bushels. The ration was 1 lb. per man per diem, and a gallon of beer46.

The Emanuel, busse, of Bridgewater, of which Newton was captain, reported that on his voyage home in 57° 30′ he sailed for three days along a high and well-wooded coast. The master, James Leach, and T. Wiars, a passenger, corroborated the statement. The island, known as the “Land of Busse” was shown by Plancius and on the Molyneux globe. Hall expected to see it in 1605, and subsequently said that he did see it in 1606. Seller placed it with defined shape, and names of points, harbours, and mountains. Several captains in the 17th century reported that they had seen it. Fifty years after the last time it was alleged to have been sighted in 1671, it was reported to have been submerged, and it then became the “sunken land of Busse.” Lieut. Pickerskill, in the Lion in 1776, sought for it, and struck a bank in 57° N. with 330 fathoms. Sir John Ross found no bottom in 180 fathoms. There never was any such island. If the people on board the busse ever saw anything, it was a part of the south coast of Greenland. They can have taken no observations, and were trusting to badly-kept dead reckoning47.

Sir Martin Frobisher was one of our great Arctic heroes. He was imbued with enthusiasm for discovery in the interests of his country. Of dauntless courage, great capacity for work, and the gift of endearing men to him by his noble qualities, he was also quick tempered, but as quickly appeased. His Arctic training and experience were helpful in his after career of great services to the country in the West Indies, in the Channel, and in the defeat of the Spanish Armada, when he was knighted. In 1594 Frobisher was called away from his home in Yorkshire to command the Channel Fleet, and, with a land force under Sir John Norris, to drive the Spaniards out of the fort of Crozon near Brest. During the siege Frobisher, while leading on his men, was mortally wounded; but Crozon was taken by storm. The Admiral was taken on board the Vanguard, his flag-ship. The Queen sent him a letter in her own handwriting. The wound need not have been mortal, but the surgeon who extracted the ball left the wadding behind, and the neglect was fatal. The great seaman and explorer died on November 22nd, 1594. Queen Elizabeth, whose extraordinary insight into character was one great element in the success of her reign, put complete trust in Frobisher, and from 1589 she employed no other admiral during his lifetime. Frobisher had unswerving faith in his religion, and devoted loyalty to his Queen. In the dangers of storm and ice, as under the fire of his country’s enemies, he ever combined presence of mind, forethought, and prudence, with heroic bravery and dash when the moment for action came. Among the Elizabethan worthies Sir Martin Frobisher justly takes his place in the first rank48.