When my old messmate Admiral Sherard Osborn and I resolved to agitate until the Government was induced to dispatch another Arctic expedition, we selected the route of Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel as the one most likely to afford valuable scientific results. We strongly deprecated a mere rush for the North Pole, as not only useless in itself, but also as hindering important geographical work.

The Northern Sound seen by Baffin in 1616 was discovered by Captain Inglefield in 1852 to be a wide channel leading to the polar ocean, and the land on its western side, facing Greenland—also discovered, but not named, by Baffin—received the name of Ellesmere Island from Inglefield. He found the entrance of Smith Sound to be 36 miles across. His extreme northern point was 78° 28′ 21″ N.

In 1853 the American, Dr Kane, in the little brig Advance of 120 tons, with a crew of 17 men, started for Smith Sound very poorly equipped144. He had some thought of completing the search for Franklin in this direction, but his main idea was to push his way as far north as possible in the brig until he reached the (imaginary) open polar sea. The Advance was stopped by the ice only nine miles north of Inglefield’s most northern position, and there Kane was forced to winter, in a place which he named Rensselaer Harbour, on the east side of the Sound in 78° 37′ N. The coast consists of precipitous cliffs 800 to 1200 feet high, with a belt of ice about 18 feet thick resting on the beach145.

Some short sledge journeys were undertaken in the spring, and Dr Kane himself went as far as a large discharging glacier, to which he gave the name of Humboldt. His steward, a man named Morton, with the Eskimo Hans Hendrik and a team of dogs, crossed the front of the glacier, and saw some open water caused by a strong current, the extent of which he exaggerated. Unable to extricate the Advance, Dr Kane and his people had to face a second winter, unprovided either with fuel or with anything but salt provisions. Scurvy soon attacked them, but they were saved by the kindly natives, who shared with them the proceeds of their hunting. Half the brig being burnt for fuel and the provisions nearly spent, Dr Kane abandoned her on May 17th, 1855, and the whole party retreated to the Danish settlement of Upernivik, which they reached on August 6th, 83 days after abandoning the brig. The story of their hardships and sufferings, as told in the charming narrative of the accomplished leader, is very interesting. His work contains the best account of the Arctic Highlanders, from whom they received so much kindness and hospitality. It is, however, to be regretted that from the exaggerated story of his steward, Dr Kane should have built up such an untenable theory as that of an open polar sea, for it misled many persons for a long time.

Dr Hayes, the surgeon of the Advance, obtained funds for an expedition to follow in the wake of Dr Kane. He sailed from Boston on July 10th, 1860, in the United States, a schooner of 133 tons, with a crew of 15 men. The little craft was blown out of Smith Sound three times before she was at last fixed in winter quarters, ten miles north-east of Cape Alexander, the western portal of the Sound, and 20 miles south of Kane’s winter quarters. Dr Hayes began his sledge travelling on April 4th in the following year. He started with 12 men, 14 dogs, and a metallic boat on runners; but the latter was sent back, and the party was reduced to four men and two dog sledges. Crossing the Sound, they reached the coast of Ellesmere Island on May 10th, and travelled northwards until the 18th. There was great abundance of animal life and consequent exemption from scurvy at his winter quarters, which he called Port Foulke. The schooner was broken out of the ice on July 10th and returned safely to Boston in October, 1861.

Ten years afterwards an expedition in the same direction was undertaken by an American named Hall. He was not a seaman, and possessed no scientific attainments, but he was endowed with undaunted persistence and enthusiasm and a very interesting personality. He was most deeply impressed with the sad story of the Franklin expedition, and for five consecutive years sought for relics along the south coast of King William Island, living with the Eskimos. In 1870 he began his agitation for an expedition to reach the North Pole, and the Navy Department handed over to him a river gunboat called the Periwinkle, of 387 tons. Hall changed her name to the Polaris146.

A seaman was necessary to command the vessel, and Captain Buddington of New London, who had made thirteen whaling voyages, was selected, Captain Tyson being his chief mate. Dr Emil Bessels, who had been with the German expedition of 1869, had charge of the scientific work. Morton and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, who were with Dr Kane, joined, also three other Eskimos, friends of Hall, named Joe, Hannah, and their daughter Silvie. The outward voyage was fortunate. During August of 1871, Hall sailed up Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel with little difficulty from the ice until he reached a latitude of 82° 16′ N., on August 30th. The winter quarters were in a harbour on the Greenland side, named Thank God Bay, in 81° 38′ N.

Hall, with his dogs, went for a short autumn journey as far as an inlet which he named Newman Bay, its northern cape, called Brevoort, being in 82° 2′ N. and 61° 20′ W. He was taken ill on his return, became partially paralyzed, and died on November 8th. He was buried on shore, and a monument has been erected to his memory. Captain Buddington resolved upon returning without attempting anything further. On August 12th, 1872, the ship was again free, but once more became beset, and drifted out of Smith Sound by the current. On October 15th she was again beset, and so severely nipped that boats and provisions were got out on the ice. Suddenly the ice eased off, but Tyson and seventeen others, including several Eskimos, were left on the floe. This ice floe continued to drift to the south, but the means of building snow shelters were found on it, many birds were shot, and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, killed more seals than the whole party could consume. After a long drift down Baffin’s Bay, the forlorn people were picked up in 53° 35′ N. by the Tigress, Captain Bartlett, who took them to St John’s, Newfoundland, in good health.

Meanwhile the Polaris was driven to the north again by a southerly gale, and ran on shore at Littleton Island near the entrance of Smith Sound. Here the fourteen remaining men passed a second winter, plentifully supplied with fresh provisions by the friendly Arctic Highlanders. They built two boats, and began a southern voyage in July, 1873, until they were picked up by the English whaler Ravenscraig, whence they were transferred a few days later to the whaler Arctic (on which Capt. A. H. Markham was at the time) and brought to England. All the journals were in charge of Dr Bessels, himself an accomplished naturalist and good observer, and his results were afterwards published.

This is all that was then known of the route by Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel. Inglefield announced the opening to the Polar Sea, and Hall’s river steamer found her way through the ice to the further end. But here again many were misled, for the chart that was first produced made the land on the west side continue to trend due north towards the pole. Correct information from Dr Bessels, however, prevented Sherard Osborn and myself from being deceived by the chart, and our conclusion was that the most valuable Arctic work would be to discover and explore the coasts facing the polar ocean.

On January 23rd, 1865, Sherard Osborn had read his able paper advocating the renewal of Arctic research before a very crowded meeting of the Geographical Society. All the survivors of the old expeditions who could possibly come were there, and many other men of distinction in the scientific world. All were impressed by the eloquence of the gallant sailor, as well known for his great service in the Sea of Azof as for his Arctic work. All were convinced. The Government must once more undertake the duty. It was a most encouraging beginning, but in March Osborn was obliged to leave England, handing over to me the onerous duty of continuing the fight single-handed.

On the 10th April, 1865, I read a paper at a meeting of the Geographical Society on the best route for Arctic exploration, but Sir Roderick Murchison caused a letter from Dr Petermann assailing my position to be read at the same time, and advocating a route north of Spitsbergen, long known to be impracticable. This apple of discord threw back the good cause for several years, but I continued to work hard at the propaganda, and not without success. Sherard Osborn returned to England in 1872, and read a paper before the Geographical Society on April 22nd, pointing out Dr Petermann’s errors and quoting Nordenskiöld, Payer, and his own man Koldewey against him. The Spitsbergen route was no more heard of, but great delay had been caused.

We grew more hopeful, and in December, 1872, a deputation waited on Mr Lowe and Mr Goschen. It met with a very unsatisfactory reception, but the idea was getting a firm grip of the public mind, which was shown in several ways. My work, The Threshold of the Unknown Region, which dealt with the subject, went through four editions in two years, and was translated into French. It was thought desirable that a naval officer should make a preliminary cruise and observe the change that steam power had made in ice navigation. Valuable information would thus be acquired and the published narrative of such a voyage would keep up the interest of the public in Arctic work. Commander Albert H. Markham volunteered for this service, and embarking on board the Dundee whaler Arctic, Captain Adams, sailed from that port in May 1873.

When the whalers were all sailing vessels there was usually much detention, and sometimes considerable loss, in passing through Melville Bay. In 1850 the ice offered such opposition to progress that the whole fleet gave it up in despair. In 1830 the whole whaling fleet was nipped against the land floe 40 miles south of Cape York, the floes overlapping each other. Nineteen ships were destroyed, but a few escaped by digging deep docks in the land ice. A thousand men were encamped on the floes, and the loss amounted to £142,000.

Commander Markham found a very different state of things in 1873. The whaling fleet consisted of ten ships, the largest being the Arctic of 439 tons. She made a very quick passage through Melville Bay, reaching the north water on June 9th. This enabled Commander Markham to visit Port Leopold, Fury Beach, and Prince Regent’s Inlet as far as Cape Garry, as well as to learn all the mysteries of the industry, and take his share in the pursuit and capture of whales. The Arctic returned after the capture of twenty-eight whales, yielding nearly 15 tons of bone and 265 tons of oil, worth £18,925. The publication of Commander Markham’s most interesting narrative much increased the feeling in favour of Arctic enterprise. The battle had indeed been a hard and long-contested one, but victory was in sight. On November 17th, 1874, the Prime Minister, Lord Beaconsfield, announced that the Government would despatch an Arctic expedition for the encouragement of maritime enterprise, and for the exploration of the region round the North Pole. Nothing could be more satisfactory. We had deprecated a mere rush to the Pole itself as useless, but we had been constantly urging the exploration of the region round the Pole for twelve long years. But the matter passed into the hands of the Admiralty, and all our arguments, supported by those of the various learned Societies, were totally disregarded. It was announced that the main object of the expedition was to attain the highest latitude and, if possible, to reach the North Pole!

Fortunately, Sir Leopold M’Clintock was the Admiral Superintendent at Portsmouth dockyard, where the expedition was fitted out, Dr Lyall and Mr Lewis of the Assistance (1852–54) being responsible for the provisions. The Alert, a 17-gun sloop, was strengthened and prepared for Arctic service147; and by my advice a sealer, built at Dundee in 1873 and named the Bloodhound, was purchased for the second ship. She was the best possible model for a vessel for Arctic service148. Captain Nares, who had served on board the Resolute in 1852–54, when he was in charge of Mecham’s depôt sledge, was recalled from the Challenger to take command of the expedition. The Captain of the second ship was Captain Stephenson, Albert Markham being Commander of the Alert, and Lewis Beaumont first lieutenant of the Bloodhound, whose name was changed to the Discovery. The officers Aldrich, May, Parr, Giffard, Egerton, Archer, Rawson, and Conybeare, nearly all attained distinction in after life, thanks to an Arctic training. Captain Feilden was the naturalist of the Alert, Mr Hart of the Discovery. The surgeons were Drs Colan and Moss in the Alert, Ninnis and Coppinger with Captain Stephenson.

A volume was printed by the Geographical Society and presented to the Expedition, containing papers on Arctic geography and ethnology, and another manual was prepared by the Royal Society on various branches of science in their connection with the regions proposed to be visited. The sledge equipments were in the able and efficient hands of Sir Leopold, and were of course as perfect as it was possible to make them149. The provisions for ships and sledges were the same as for the search expeditions, or were intended to be the same. The Valorous paddle steamer was in company, to fill up the exploring ships at Disco, and take a line of deep-sea soundings across the Atlantic during her return voyage.

The immense crowd, brought by trains from all parts of England, which was assembled on Southsea Common on the 29th May, 1875, when the Arctic ships left Portsmouth Harbour, was a proof that a proper spirit had at length been aroused. Men and officers were the pick of the service, and the expedition started under most promising conditions. It encountered terrific gales, however, in crossing the Atlantic, and it was not until July 6th that the three vessels arrived at Lievely or Godhavn, on the south coast of Disco Island. The Alert and Discovery were here filled up with stores and provisions by the Valorous, took on board dogs, and with them a Dane named Petersen (not the great Carl Petersen) and the Eskimo Frederick. Parting company with the Valorous at Ritenbenk, they sailed down the Waigat fjord north of Disco, and on July 19th arrived at Proven, where the services of the veteran Hans Hendrik were secured for the Discovery150.

As the season was late Captain Nares took the middle pack, and reached the north water of Baffin’s Bay in 34 hours. At the end of July a small depôt was left at Cape Isabella, the western entrance of Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel, but soon afterwards the ships were beset near Cape Sabine, and detained by the ice for five days. At last there was a lead to the north, but the Alert was for some time in great danger of being forced up the side of a berg. There were heavy falls of snow and much danger from the drifting floes, and on August 8th they had to cut a dock in order to avoid a serious nip. At length Lady Franklin Bay was reached, and fixed upon as the winter quarters of the Discovery. The Alert pushed on, and fortunately a south-west gale drove the pack off the shore, and enabled Captain Nares to take a narrow channel along the coast, and reach “Floe-berg Beach” facing the great polar ocean, where the vessel was hauled inside some huge masses of ice, which from their size and formation, received the name of “floe bergs.” Here, in 82° 30′ N., within a hundred yards of a low beach, were her winter quarters, about 50 miles from those of the Discovery. No ship had ever wintered so far north before. There was some autumn travelling in spite of soft snow, a depôt being laid out forty miles from the ship. A most severe winter was cheerfully faced, the men being kept interested and amused with a school, lectures, and other entertainments, while the Royal Arctic Theatre was opened again after an interval of twenty-one years. The chaplain, Mr Pullen, author of Dame Europa’s School, was fortunately endowed both with dramatic and poetic talent, adapting plays with much literary skill and writing excellent verses; and Dr Moss was an artist of more than ordinary talent.

In other successful expeditions we have had to deal with the work of strong and healthy men. Now we have to contemplate the heroic, indeed almost miraculous efforts of men who attained great results in spite of the ravages of a terrible and deadly disease. The seeds of scurvy had taken root throughout the winter, and no one knew it. The travelling parties had started before the calamity became known, and of 121 men in the two ships there were 56 cases of scurvy, 42 in the Alert, but only 14 in the Discovery, in which ship a larger supply of fresh meat was obtained from musk oxen.

Captain Nares had now to consider how to carry out his instructions. He was ordered to reach the highest latitude, and if possible the Pole itself. Exploration was to be quite secondary. Before him was a frozen sea consisting of huge ice masses and lines of heavy crushed-up ice, and he expected the pack to break up and be in movement in the spring. He did not think that an important advance could be made unless a coast-line could be found trending north. He accordingly determined to send out three sledge parties, one westward, another eastward, and another north over the frozen sea, though he did not expect that the latter could proceed for any great distance.

A preliminary journey was undertaken to open communication with the Discovery by the two youngest officers, Egerton and Rawson, with the Dane, Petersen, and a team of nine dogs. They had hardly gone two marches when the Dane collapsed, covered with frost bites, and suffering from cramp. The two young officers did all that was possible for him, but his condition was so serious that he had to be put on the sledge and taken back to the ship. It was found necessary to amputate both feet, but it was in vain, and he died on the 14th May. Meanwhile, on March 20th, Egerton and Rawson started again, and reached the Discovery151.

The 3rd of April was the day fixed upon for the start of the main sledge parties, Markham north over the frozen sea, Aldrich west along the north coast of Ellesmere Island. Captain Nares, in compliance with his instructions, decided to send the sledge crews north dragging two boats as well as their sledge with provisions, which necessitated going over the same ground four or five times, thus allowing the travellers only to attain a very short distance from the ship. Sir Leopold M’Clintock would have put the whole strength of the expedition on the northern journey, and would easily have achieved the distance with healthy men. No boats would have been taken, but the sledges would have been made convertible into boats in the event of lanes of water barring progress. There could be no depôts, but supporting sledges would have been used to advance the main sledge to the pole, and to meet it in returning. The distance to the Pole and back was much shorter than some of the sledge journeys successfully made during the search expeditions. But alas! the indispensable condition of healthy men was wanting.

Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr reached the autumn depôt at Cape Joseph Henry on the 10th April, 1876, and commenced their journey over the frozen sea with the thermometer at -33° Fahr. They encountered small floes surrounded by broad fringes of hummocks, across which roads had to be made for the sledges. Even then the sledges could only be got over by standing pulls, while the ground had to be gone over four times, dragging up the boat sledges. The work was tremendous, and the officers worked harder than the men, with less rest. Soon scurvy began to appear, the two first cases on the 16th and 17th April. On the 19th Commander Markham abandoned one of the boats. On the 24th the sledge crews were all day cutting a lane through hummocks. On the 11th May Markham reached the limit of human endurance and their furthest north in 83° 20′ 26″ N. Soundings were taken in 73 fathoms, showing that they were still on the continental shelf. On the 13th May the return journey was begun, on the 17th the second boat was abandoned, and on the 5th June the land was reached. Next day Lieutenant Parr started alone for the ship for help, for only three men, including Commander Markham, could drag the sledge. Two men were unable to walk, and were placed on the sledge; one died. The heroic resolution of all concerned enabled them to struggle on to the last in spite of difficulties and hardships, and the courage displayed while in the grip of this dread disease was magnificent. The party had gone over 600 miles.

Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich’s western party had meanwhile made important discoveries along the north coast of Ellesmere Island during an absence of 84 days from the ship. He travelled over 630 miles, nearly all his sledge crew being more or less disabled by scurvy. His most northern point was 83° N., and was named Cape Columbia.

The third principal effort was to be made along the north coast of Greenland. From April 10th to 18th Egerton and Rawson crossed the channel between Greenland and Ellesmere Island to pioneer a route, returning on the latter date. Lieutenant Beaumont of the Discovery was to command the party. On the 16th April he and Dr Coppinger arrived at the Alert with two 8-man sledges. There Rawson joined them with another sledge, and on the 20th they all crossed the channel to Greenland, with a fourth depôt sledge. On May 5th Coppinger parted company, and on the 11th Rawson followed with a man on his sledge who had shown symptoms of scurvy.

Beaumont proceeded along the Greenland north coast, a new discovery. On May 19th he reached his turning point, naming a distant cape to the north-east Cape Britannia. His furthest point was in 82° 18′ N. and 50° 40′ W.

Soon after the return journey was commenced the whole sledge crew was attacked with scurvy. Three only, including Beaumont himself, were able to drag the sledge, the others being carried forward by relays. A dreadful disaster seemed imminent, but thanks to the foresight and energy of Rawson, Coppinger, and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, it was averted. They pushed forward to the rescue, and when they reached Polaris Bay only the officers were able to drag. Here there was a long rest, while the stricken men were revived on fresh seal meat. On August 8th Beaumont and Coppinger started to cross the channel to the Discovery with the now convalescent men, in a 15-ft. ice boat. After a most arduous and perilous voyage over the drifting ice, the ship was reached on the 15th. Beaumont had been away 132 days.

Meanwhile, Lieutenant Archer had discovered and surveyed a long and narrow fjord running south from Lady Franklin Bay. This was an admirable piece of work, but the most important discovery was that of a deposit of coal of the Miocene period, with many impressions of plants, near the winter quarters of the Discovery.

The outbreak of scurvy led Captain Nares to return to England, and although the geographical work fell far short of what would have been achieved had they escaped the disease, it was still of great interest and value, while the other scientific results were of the highest importance. The ships reached Portsmouth 2nd November, 1876.

The geographical results were the discovery of 300 miles of coast-line facing the polar ocean, valuable observations on the structure of the ice in this region, and, through the tidal observations, the discovery of the insularity of Greenland152. The important magnetic, meteorological, and tidal observations were under the immediate superintendence of Captain Nares. The great value of the other scientific results was mainly due to that very able naturalist, Captain Feilden. This officer had seen much service in India during the Mutiny, in China, and during the Civil War in North America on the Confederate side. His special study was ornithology, but he had a sound knowledge of other branches of natural history and of geology, and was indefatigable as an observer and collector.

Great as the scientific value of the collections was found to be, the conclusions to be derived from the discoveries when combined with those of former expeditions were of quite equal importance. We are able to understand the enormous pressure exerted by the ice along the newly-discovered coasts, and we see exactly the same thing as described by M’Clintock on Prince Patrick Island, by M’Clure on Banks Island, and by Collinson, in a less degree, on the coast north of America. The conclusion was inevitable that a current drives the ice across the polar ocean from east to west, with a set down the east coast of Greenland. This discovery threw a new light on the whole polar economy, and for this reason, combined with the scientific results, the Nares expedition must occupy a very high place in the annals of Arctic enterprise. My own conclusion at the time, based on the considerations above indicated, was that there was a deep ocean north of Franz Josef Land, and that a great result would be obtained by a vessel drifting across it with the current from Eastern Siberia towards Greenland.