[1] I may be permitted to remark that in vindicating the claims of history to be regarded as a science or Wissenchaft, I never meant to suggest a proposition so indefensible as that the presentation of the results of historical research is not an art, requiring the tact and skill in selection and arrangement which belong to the literary faculty. The friendly criticisms of Mr. John Morley in the Nineteenth Century and After, October 1904, and of Mr. S. H. Butcher in Harvard Lectures on Greek Subjects (1904), Lecture VI., show me that I did not sufficiently guard against this misapprehension.
[2] For the expansion of Christianity in the first three centuries see Harnack’s invaluable work Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (1902).
[3] Rufinus, Hist. ecc. ii. 7. For the Georgian legend of Nino see Life of St. Nino, translated by Marjory and J. O. Wardrop, in Oxford Studia Biblica et Ecclesiastica, vol. v. (1900).
[4] De Vocatione Gentium, ii. 32.
[5] On the other hand it may be questioned whether the army itself did anything to diffuse Christianity within the Empire. In the west certainly its chief significance in the history of religion was what it did to spread the solar, Mithraic worship. Cp. Harnack, op. cit. 268, 388.
[6] Rufinus, Hist. ecc. i. 9.
[7] Armenia was already Christian at the beginning of the fourth century in the days of Maximin.—Eusebius, Hist. ecc. ix. 8. 2.
[8] Socrates, Hist. ecc. vii. 30.
[9] The island of Man is indeed another exception. The Scottic colonisation of north-western Britain (Argyle, etc.) was comparatively late, but before the middle of the fifth century (see below, chap. ix. p. 192).
[10] Professor Rhŷs thinks that it was to Ireland, more than to Britain, that the Gallic Druids went to learn their art, and that Caesar (in B. G. vi. 13) was badly informed; and he has recently stated this view in Studies in Early Irish History (Proceedings of British Academy, vol. i.), p. 35. It is remarkable that, apart from Caesar’s assertion, the only evidence for Druidism in southern Britain pertains to the island of Anglesey (Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 29), and Professor Rhŷs holds that in the first century A.D. Anglesey (Mona) was not yet Brythonic. Druidism in the Isle of Man is attested by a stone inscribed Dovaidona maqi Droata “(the burial-place) of Dovaido, son of (the) Druid.” See Professor Rhŷs in the Academy for August 15, 1890.
[11] Tacitus, Agricola, c. 24, medio inter Britanniam atque Hispaniam sita. Cp. Caesar, B.G. v. 13. The notice in Orosius (Hist. i. 2, § 72) of the lighthouse at Brigantia in north-western Spain as built ad speculam Britanniae is noteworthy. Compare the remarks of Professor Rhŷs, op. cit. p. 47.
[12] Tacitus, ib. aditus portusque per commercia et negotiatores cogniti.
[13] Tacitus, ib. The policy recommended by Agricola, who considered one legion sufficient to hold the island, was based partly on the ground of political expedience. The conquest of Ireland, he thought, would have a similar wholesome effect on Britain to that which the conquest of Britain had on Gaul, by removing the spectacle of liberty (si Romance ubique arma et uelut e conspectu libertas tolleretur).
[14] The baronies of Upper and Lower Deece, in Co. Meath.
[15] Decies within Drum, and Decies without Drum, in Co. Waterford.
[16] See note, Appendix B.
[18] It seems probable that Pelagius sprang from these Gaelic settlers in Britain. See below, p. 43.
[19] See below, cap. viii. ad fin.
[20] Un peuple n’emprunte pas l’alphabet des voisins s’il n’a pas à correspondre avec eux.... Qui donc constate un emprunt de monnaie et d’alphabet, en tous temps et en tous lieux, peut affirmer un échange de produits et d’idées (V. Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l’Odyssée, i. p. 20).
[21] See Appendix C, 1.
[22] See note, Appendix B.
[23] See Appendix C, 2, for the following account of the invasions of Britain.
[24] Circa A.D. 389; see Appendix C, 3.
[25] See note, Appendix B.
[26] There is no evidence, and no probability, that the name Paul was adopted on his conversion, or that it had anything to do with Sergius Paullus.
[27] Frigeridus is Gothic Frigairêths.
[28] For date see Appendix C, 3.
[29] See Appendix C, 4.
[30] Croagh Patrick, close to Westport.
[31] Dalriada = north Antrim; Dalaradia = south Antrim and Down. The Latin form, Ulidia, is used in this book for Ulaid in the narrower meaning.
[32] It has been conjectured that Miliucc’s dwelling was on the hill of Skerry, on the northern side of the Braid; see below, p. 86.
[33] Another possible theory is mentioned in Appendix C, 4.
[34] See note, Appendix B.
[35] The association of Saint Elias with the sun was due to the resemblance of the name to the Greek ἥλιος.
[36] See Appendix C, 6.
[37] St. Honorat.—Lero is Ste. Marguerite.
[38] A.D. 426.
[39] A.D. 433.
[40] His own expression “as a son” shows that parentes here means kinsfolk, not parents, and justifies the inference that his parents were dead.
[41] Pelagius, Letter to Demetrias, Migne, P.L., xxxii. 1100.
[42] Prosper has an epigram on the thesis that the whole life of non-Christians is sin:
[43] Compare Celestine, Ep. iv. (Migne, P.L., 1. 434), nullus inuitis detur episcopus.
[44] The conjecture is due to Professor Zimmer.
[45] The old kingdom of Leinster, or Laigin, was south of the Liffey, and in this book “Leinster” is used in this sense (not equivalent to the modern province, which includes the old kingdom of Meath). See below, chap. iv.
[46] See Appendix C, 9, on Patrick’s consecration.
[47] No better illustration of this can be found than Pope Gregory’s provision for the mission of Augustine to England, as recorded in Bede, Hist. ecc. i. 29; he sent, besides fellow-workers, “uniuersa quae ad cultum erant ac ministerium ecclesiae necessaria, uasa videlicet sacra, et vestimenta altarium, ornamenta quoque ecclesiarum, et sacerdotalia uel clericilia indumenta, sanctorum etiam apostolorum ac martyrum reliquias, necnon et codices plurimos.”
[48] It has recently been held, more plausibly but erroneously, that Patrick was on his way to Rome when the news of the death of Palladius overtook him. See Appendix C, 8.
[49] Celestine probably died July 27, and Xystus succeeded July 31, 432. These dates have been determined by M. Duchesne, Liber Pontificalis, i. pp. ccli.-ii.
[50] It is probable that excommunication by a Roman bishop was also recognised as universally binding. The question whether the popes had the right of annulling sentences pronounced by provincial councils on bishops, depends on the question of the authenticity of the Council of Sardica. See J. Friedrich, Sitzungsber. of the Bavarian Academy, 1901, 417 sqq.; E. Babut, Le concile de Turin, 75.
[51] A.D. 366-384.
[52] See Babut, Le concile de Turin (1904), a valuable work.
[53] This has been well brought out by M. Babut.
[54] Novella, xvi.
[55] Commonitorium, ii. 33, 34.
[56] The chief source for the social and economic conditions of ancient Ireland is the collection of the Ancient Laws of Ireland (6 vols., 1865-1901). A clear account of the general framework of society, with interesting details and illustrations, will be found in Dr. Joyce’s Social History of Ireland, vol. i.
[57] Tuath = people, tribe, tribal district.
[58] Flaith = noble.
[59] The bó-aires.
[60] The tributes and presents which are due from the under-kings to the over-kings, the donations which the over-kings owe to the under-kings, the privileges which the various kings possess, are the subject of the Book of Rights (edited and translated by O’Donovan, 1847), which still awaits a critical investigation. It is easy to see that it was compiled in Munster in the tenth century, but it was based on older material of high antiquity, and clearly reproduces the general character of the mutual relations which theoretically bound together the Irish kingdoms.
[61] The king of Aileach was so called because his palace was at Aileach, near Londonderry. His territory was north Ulster to the Bann. Ulaid was east Ulster; Oriel, south Ulster.
[62] This is clearly to be inferred from the Book of Rights, where no relations or mutual obligations are mentioned as existing between the three Ulster kings. Nor was there, since the destruction of the old Ulidian kingdom in the third century, any name to designate the whole province, for Ulaid was confined to the kingdom in the east of Ulster. The use of Ultonia to describe the province, as distinguished from Ulidia = Ulaid, is of course merely a literary convention.
[63] See Petrie, Tara Hill, 135.
[64] His date, according to the Annals, was A.D. 358-366; Niall reigned A.D. 379-405; his nephew, Dathi, 405-428; and then his son, Loigaire, 428-463. For Amolngaid (Dathi’s brother), king of Connaught, see Appendix C, 14.
[65] Tyrconnell.
[66] The derivation of the word druid (nom. drui, gen. druad) is uncertain. Perhaps, as Professor Rhŷs holds, Druidism was not of Celtic origin, and the word “was adopted by the Celts from some earlier population conquered by them” (see his “Studies in Early Irish History,” in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. i. p. 8). Druidecht is the Irish for magic. For the functions and powers of the Druids some excellent pages in Dr. Joyce’s Social History, I. c. ix., may be recommended; illustrations and references will be found there.
[67] Mug Ruith, servant of the wheel, was the name of a mythical Druid.
[68] The Feth Fiada.
[69] For these superstitious ceremonies at baptism cp. Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien, pp. 296-7 (the exorcism of salt), 299, 317; cp. 349.
[70] In the remarkable ancient Irish Christian incantation, the Lorica, ascribed to St. Patrick (see Appendix A, 5), the Trinity, Angels, Prophets, and other Christian powers are invoked, but also “might of heaven, brightness of sun, brilliance of moon, splendour of fire, speed of light, swiftness of wind, depth of sea, stability of earth, firmness of rock,” to intervene between him who repeats the spell when he arises in the morning and “every fierce merciless force that may come upon my body and soul; against incantations of false prophets, against black laws of paganism, against false laws of heresy, against deceit of idolatry, against spells of women and smiths and druids, against all knowledge that is forbidden [so Atkinson] the human soul.”
[71] M. Réville, dealing with the third century, puts this very well. “Chacun croit sans le moindre difficulté à toutes les merveilles et à toutes les folies. On dirait même que plus une pratique est merveilleuse, plus elle a de chance d’être admise sans contestation. Chose singulière! les adeptes des religions opposées ne contestent pas la réalité des miracles allégués par leurs adversaires: Celse admet les miracles des chrétiens, et ceux-ci ne se refusent pas à admettre les miracles païens; des deux parts on attribue aux mauvais esprits les merveilles invoquées par les adversaires” (La Religion à Rome sous les Sévères, p. 131).
[72] See note, Appendix B.
[73] The Memoir by Tírechán.
[74] The Life by Muirchu.
[75] Cuchullin of legend.
[76] Then called Brene Strait.
[77] The Slaney (see Appendix B, note). It flows from L. Money past Raholp.
[78] It has been conjectured that the stronghold of Miliucc was on the hill of Skerry, north of Slemish, on the other side of the Braid valley. Muirchu says that Patrick saw the conflagration from the south side of Slemish. We may interpret south to mean south-west. A cross, mentioned by Muirchu, was erected on the spot where the legend supposed Patrick to have stood, and the memory of this is still preserved in the name of the townland of Cross, on a hill to the west of Slemish.
[79] Dr. W. Stokes, taking the story literally, suggests that Miliucc committed self-destruction as “a mode of vengeance” (Book of Lismore, p. 295).
[80] Mag-inis, later known as Lecale (Leath Cathail), now the baronies of Lower and Upper Lecale. It is accurately described as a peninsular plain.
[81] But meaning barn.
[82] There is a second story (also recorded by Muirchu), clearly inspired by the same motive. Patrick was resting near Druimbo (in the north of Mag Inis, and close to a salt marsh), and he heard the noise of pagans who were busily engaged in making an earthwork. It was Sunday and he commanded them to cease from work. When they refused he cursed them: “Mudebrod! may your work not profit you!” and the sea rushed in, as in the other story, and the work was destroyed. The curse mudebrod (or mudebroth) has not been explained.
[83] See above, chap. i. p. 14.
[84] See Appendix C, 11.
[85] See above, cap. iv. p. 72.
[86] Compare what has been said above in chap. i. p. 9.
[87] This name is the same as the British Vortigern (Welsh Gwrtheyrn), and the original Goidelic form was similar. It occurs in Ogam inscriptions, thus: ... Maqi Vorrtigern<i>, on a stone of Ballyhank (near Cork), now in the Dublin Museum (Rhŷs, Proc. of R.S.A.I., pt. i. vol. xxxii. p. 9, 1902).
[88] The distance of Tara from Slane is about ten miles.
[89] Yet more remote from the Paschal season was the feast of Samhain at the close of autumn (November 1), when on the hill of Tlachtga, not far from Trim, a fire was kindled, from which, tradition says, all hearths in Ireland were lit. It was at Samhain too, according to tradition, that the High Kings used to hold such high festivals at Tara as are designated in the story. See note, Appendix B.
[90] This incident is obviously suggested by St. John xx. 19, 26. When St. Columba went to the palace of King Brude the closed gates opened of their own accord (Adamnan, V. Col. ii. 35).
[91] See note, Appendix B.
[92] See note, Appendix B.
[93] Tírechán, p. 308, perrexitque ad civitatem Temro ad Loigairium filium Neill iterum quia apud illum foedus pepigit ut non occideretur in regno illius.
[94] See Appendix C, 12.
[95] At Crag, in Co. Kerry.—Macalister, Studies in Irish Epigraphy, ii. p. 52.
[96] Cp. Appendix A, ii. 5.
[97] It should be Donagh-shaughlin, for Donagh is domnach, a church, whereas dún is a fort. There is no doubt that Dún here is a corruption, as we get the form Donnaclsacheling in a document of A.D. 1216 (Reeves, Eccl. Ant. p. 128).
[99] See Appendix A, i. 6. One of the best quatrains is the fourth:
[100] The Confession shows that this comparison was sometimes in Patrick’s mind.
[101] Perfectam vitam, Hymn v. 4. Secundinus died A.D. 447, acc. to Ann. Ult.
[102] Telltown comes by popular etymology from the genitive Taillteann. The site is marked by a round rath. O’Donovan said in 1856 that it had been in recent times a resort for the men of Meath for hurling, wrestling, and other sports (Four Masters, i. p. 22).
[103] Herbord, Vit. Ott. ii. 14. The silence of early authorities is decisive against the isolated statement that Patrick preached at Taillte against the “burning of the first-born offspring.” (See Appendix B, note.)
[104] Mac Fechach.—Tírechán, 310₂₄.
[105] Áth Brón.—Tír. 307₂₈.
[106] St. Colomb’s House. For its description and measurements see Petrie (Round Towers, 430-31), who compares it with St. Kevin’s House at Glendalough, and Dunraven’s Notes on Irish Architecture, vol. ii. p. 50 (plans and photograph).
[107] Tírechán, 310-11.
[108] See Appendix C, 4, ad fin.
[109] See note, Appendix B.
[110] It may be observed that if the idol of Mag Slecht had been eminently important for all Ireland, and had been destroyed at a period subsequent to St. Patrick, there could hardly fail to be a Christian record of its fall. In the Annals of the Four Masters, s.a. 464, it is said that Conall, son of Niall, ancestor of the lords of Tyrconnell, was done to death by the “old Folks” of Mag Slecht, who caught him unprotected. The thought occurs that Conall had supported the attack on the worship of Cenn Cruaich, and that his death was an act of vengeance wreaked by people of the plain who still clung to the old faith.
[111] Perhaps A.D. 444-5. See Appendix C, 14.
[112] See Appendix C, 13, on Patrick in Connaught.
[113] At Duma Graid, close to Lake Kilglass. See Tírechán, 313, and Vit. Trip. p. 94.
[114] Between Sligo and Leitrim.
[115] May the name be the same as that of the tribe of the Anghaile (Annaly), who extended their power subsequently into Tethbia (cp. O’Donovan, Book of Rights, p. 11, note)?
[116] Tamnach.
[117] “Church of Bishop Brón.”
[118] In Mag Airthic. See Appendix C, 13.
[119] Ciarrigi. Through the baronies of Costello, Clanmorris, and Kilmaine. Possibly Aghamore, south of Kilkelly, may lie on the supposed route. It has been conjectured that the church in campo Nairniu (Tírechán, 321) was there.
[120] In quo fiunt episcopi.
[121] Muiriscc (Muir = sea) Aigli. (The promontory dominated by Knocknaree in Sligo Bay was also called Muiriscc, Tír. 327.) The promontory was also known as Umail. This name is preserved in the Owles, designating the regions on both sides of Clew Bay, now the baronies of Murrisk and Burris-hoole; the latter word also contains the name Umail.
[122] Its height is 2510 feet. Mount Nephin, close to Lake Conn, is higher.
[123] Carrick-on-Shannon.
[124] He first went to a place called Duma Graid, and ordained there the arch-presbyter Ailbe, who resided at Shancoe (as mentioned above). It may be suspected that the name Duma Graid (for which we expect a modern Doogary) is preserved in Dockery’s Island, near the mouth of Lake Kilglass.
[125] See note, Appendix B.
[126] Tuatha De Danann, people of the goddess Danann. They are said, in the mythical history of Ireland, to have colonised the country and to have been conquered by the Milesians.