Tropical nature, and other essays

INDEX.

A.
Abrus precatoria, perhaps a case of mimicry, 226
Absorption-colours or pigments, 183
Acræidæ, warning colours of, 174
Adaptive characters, 150, 155
Affinities, how to determine doubtful, 148
African large mammalia, recent immigrants, 323
Allen, Mr. Grant, on protective colours of fruits, 225
Alpine flowers, why so beautiful, 232
Amboyna, large-sized butterflies of, 258
American monkeys, 118
American Continents, past history of, 332
Ancient races of North and South America, 298
Andaman Islands, pale butterflies of, 260
white-marked birds of, 263
Anderson, Mr. W. Marshall, on cranium from N. American mound, 296
Andes, very rich in humming-birds, 139
Animal colours, how produced, 184
life in tropical forests, 70
Anthribidæ, 95
Ants, wasps, and bees, 80
numbers of, in India and Malaya, 81–88
destructive to insect-specimens, 85
and vegetation, special relation between, 89
Apatura and Heterochroa, resemblance of species of, 257
Apes, 116
Aqueous vapour of atmosphere, its influence on temperature, 9
quantity at Batavia and Clifton, 10
Arctic plants, large leaves of, 236
flowers and fruits brightly coloured, 237
Areca palm, 45
Arenga saccharifera, 43
Argus-pheasant, wonderful plumage of, 205
Arums, 48
Assai of the Amazon, 43
Auckland Isles, handsome flowers of, 238
Audubon, on the ruby humming-birds, 130, 137
Australian Region, mammalia of, 340
birds of, 340
extinct fauna of, 341
its supposed union with S. America, 341
Azara, on food of humming-birds, 135
B.
Bamboos, 52
uses of, 53–58
Bananas, wild, 47
Banana, 48
Barber, Mrs. on colour changes of pupa of Papilio nireus, 168
Barbets, 105
Bark, varieties of in tropical forests, 33
Barometer, range of, at Batavia, 24
Batavia, Meteorology of, 4
and London, diagram of mean temperatures, 5
greatest rainfall at, 24
range of barometer at, 24
Bates, Mr., on climate at the Equator, 24
on scarcity of forest-flowers on Amazon, 61
on animal life in Amazon valley, 70
on abundance of butterflies at Ega, 75
on importance of study of butterflies, 78
on leaf-cutting ants, 86
on blind ants, 88
on bird-catching spider, 97
on use of toucan’s bill, 106
on large serpents, 115
on the habits of humming-birds, 132
Bats, 118
Beetles, 94
abundance of, in New Forest-clearings, 96
probable use of horns of, 202
Belt, Mr., on virgin forests of Nicaragua, 62
on aspects of tropical vegetation, 67
on leaf-cutting ants, 86
on an Acacia inhabited by ants, 89
on uses of ants to the trees they live on, 90
on a leaf-like locust, 93
on tree-frogs, 116
on the habits of humming-birds, 133, 134
on uneatable bright-coloured frog, 175
on use of light of glow-worm, 205
Betel-nut, 45
Bill of humming-birds, 129
Biology, by-paths of, illustrated, 251
Birds, 99
how many known, 124
cases of local variation of colour among, 262
influence of locality on colours of, 255
which fertilize flowers, 273, 274
and insects blown to oceanic islands, 308
of Palæarctic Region, 316
of Ethiopian Region, 318
of Oriental Region, 320
Bonelli, Mr., on the Sappho comet humming-bird, 132
Bullock on food of humming-birds, 153
Buprestidæ, 94
Burchell, Dr., on the “stone mesembryanthemum,” 223
Butterflies, abundance of, in tropical forests, 72
conspicuousness of in tropical forests, 73
colours and form of, 74
peculiar habits of tropical, 76
tropical and temperate compared as to colour, 164
females do not choose their partners, 200
with gaily-coloured females, 204
numbers and variety of, 255
influence of locality on colours of, 255
Buttressed trees, 31
C.
Calamus, 41
Callithea, imitated by species of Catagramma and Agrias, 257
Callithea markii, 75
Campylopterus hemileucurus, pugnacious and ornamental, 214
Cattleyas, 51
Cecropias, trees inhabited by ants, 89
Celebes, large and peculiarly formed butterflies of, 259
white-marked birds of, 263
Centipedes, 97
Ceylon and Malaya, resemblances of fauna of, 327
Chameleons, 113
Chameleon, cause of changes of its colour, 170
Chemical action changes colours, 183
Chili, humming-birds of, 141
Chiroptera, 119
Chrysobactron Rossii, 238
Clark, Rev. Hamlet on leaf-cutting ants, 86
Climate of Equator, general features of, 17
Climates of Timor, Angola, and Scotland compared, 14
Climbing plants of tropical forests, 37
uses of, 39
Cockatoos, 100
Cœlogynes, 51
Coloration of tropical birds, 110
Colour, cause of change of, in humming-birds, 144
Colour in nature, problems of, 159
how far constant, 161
as affected by heat and light, 161
of tropical birds, 163
of tropical butterflies, 164
of temperate and tropical flowers, 165
changes of, in animals produced by coloured light, 167
voluntary change of, in animals, 170
not usually influenced by coloured light, 171
Colour, the nature of, 180
how produced, 183
changed by heat, 183
a normal product of organization, 185
as a means of recognition, 196
proportionate to integumentary development, 198
not caused by female selection, 198
Colour absent in wind-fertilized flowers, 233
same theory of, in animals and plants, 234
of flowers and their distribution, 235
Colour, nomenclature of, formerly imperfect, 247
Colour-development as illustrated by humming-birds, 212
local causes of, 216
in animals, summary, 216
Colour-perception, supposed recent growth of, 244
Colour-sense, origin of the, 241
need for, 243
not of recent origin, 246
not wholly explicable, 248
Colours, classification of organic, 172
protective, 172
warning, 174
sexual, 177
typical, 179
of animals, how produced, 184
theory of protective, 187
theory of warning, 189
theory of sexual, 192
theory of typical, 215
Colours and ornaments of humming-birds, 127
Colours of fruits, attractive, 224
protective, 225
Colours, which first perceived, 243
Cometes sparganurus, very pugnacious, 214
Compositæ, arborescent in oceanic islands, 276
Continent, past changes of the great Eastern, 321
Continents of Tertiary period, probable aspect of, 343
Copridæ, 95
probable use of horns of, 202
Crematogaster, genus of ants, 83
Cross-fertilization of flowers, use of, 228
complex arrangements for, 229
Cuckoos, 104
D.
Danaidæ, warning colours of, 174
Danainæ, Acræinæ and Heliconiinæ, local resemblances of, 256
Daphne pontica, 230
Darwin, Mr., on mode of cross-fertilization and its use, 228
not too highly rated, 252
on vegetation of Galapagos, 272
on use of scented leaves, 277
on former union of West Indian islands and S. America, 306
on oceanic islands, 307
revolution in thought effected by, 284
Deserts on line of tropics, 28
Desmoncus, 41
De Vry, Mr., on the sugar-palm, 43
Dews, cause of heavy tropical, 10
Diagram of mean temperature at Batavia and London, 5
of rainfall at Batavia and London, 15
Dianthus alpinus, D. glacialis, 232
Distribution of humming-birds, 138
Dragons or flying-lizards, 113
Drugs from equatorial forest-trees, 36
Duke-of-York Island, pale-coloured insects of, 259
Islands, remarkable white plumaged birds of, 263
Dyes from equatorial forest-trees, 36
Dynastidæ, 95
probable use of horns of, 202
E.
Earl, Mr. George Windsor, on division of Malay Archipelago, 307
Earth-sculpture or surface-geology, 250
Earthworks, North American, 292
Easter Island, sculptures on, 291
Eciton, genus of foraging ants, 87
Elateridæ, luminous species perhaps mimetic, 205
Emperor-moth, protective coloration of, 174
Environment, relation of living things to, 254
Epicalia, sexes of, differently coloured, 178
Epilobium angustifolium, E. parviflorum, 233
Epimachinæ, 150
Equator, cause of uniform high temperature near, 6
short twilight at, 21
Equatorial climate, general features of, 17
uniformity of in all parts of the world, 18
local diversities of, 19
Equatorial forests, general features of, 29
Equatorial forest-belt, cause of, 27
Equatorial heavens, aspect of, 23
Equatorial zone, temperature of, 3
Ethiopian Region, 317
Eugenes fulgens, 134
Eunica and Siderone, resemblance of species of, 257
Euplœa, pale species of, in Moluccas and New Guinea, 258
Euro-Asiatic continent, Miocene fauna of, 323
Eustephanus, 141
Eustephanus galeritus, 143
Euterpe oleracea, 43
Evaporation and condensation, equalising effects of, 16
F.
Female birds, greater brilliancy of some, 211
Female insects, greater brilliancy of some, 203
Ferns, 46
Ferns, preponderance of in Tahiti and Juan Fernandez, 269, 270
Fiji Islands, pale butterflies of, 259
Fire-ants, 83
Fishes, causes of general coloration of, 171
Flowering trunks, probable cause of, 34
Flowers, comparative scarcity of in equatorial forests, 60
Flowers and insects, 64
Flowers of temperate zones brilliantly coloured, 165
comparatively scarce in tropical forests, 167
Flowers, attractive colours of, 228
fertilized by insects, 228
attractive odours of, 230
when sweet-scented not conspicuously coloured, 230
attractive grouping of, 231
alpine, why so beautiful, 232
why allied species differ in beauty, 233
when wind-fertilized not coloured, 233
relation of colours of, to distribution, 235
and fruits, recent views as to action of light on, 236
Flowers of Auckland and Campbell’s Isles, bright-coloured, 238
Flying-lizards, 113
Foliage, two chief types of, in tropical forests, 33
colours of, 221
Foot of savages does not approach that of apes, 289 (note)
Forest-belt, cause of equatorial, 27
Forest-belts, temperate, 29
Forest-tree, section of a Bornean, 32
formed from climbers, 32
Forest-trees, characteristics of, 30
Forest-trees of low growth, 34
Forest-trees, uses of equatorial, 35
Forests, effect of on rainfall and drought, 19
devastation caused by destruction of, 20
equatorial, 29
undergrowth of tropical, 34
Formica gigas, 81
Foxes, none in Isle of Wight in 1605, 305
Frogs and toads, 116
Frog, with bright colours uneatable, 175
Frogs of oceanic islands, 309
Fruit-bats, 119
Fruits of equatorial forest-trees, 36
Fruits, attractive colours of, 224
protective colours of, 225
greater antiquity of protected than attractive, 227
G.
Galapagos, colours of productions of, 163
poor in flowers and insects, 235
weedy vegetation of, 272
Gardner, Dr., on a large water-boa, 115
Geckos, 112
Geiger, on ancient perception of colour, 245
Geranium pratense, G. pusillum, 233
Gibbons, 116
Ginger-worts, 47
Gladstone, Mr., on the colour-sense, 245
Glow-worm, use of its light, 205
Goliath cuckoo, 105
Gosse, Mr., on Jamaica humming-birds, 132, 135
on the pugnacity of humming-birds, 134
on food of humming-birds, 137
Gould, Mr., on the motions of humming-birds, 131
Grammatophyllums, 51
Green, why the most agreeable colour, 244
Grisebach, on cause of vivid colours of arctic flowers, 237
Guilielma speciosa, 42
Gums from equatorial forest-trees, 36
H.
Habenaria chlorantha, 230
Habits of humming-birds, 130
Heat due to condensation of atmospheric vapour, 14
changes colours, 183
Heliconiinæ and Acræinæ, local resemblances of, 256
Hindostan and Africa, resemblances of fauna of, 328
Hooker, Sir J. on flowers of Auckland Isles, 238
on deficient odour of New Zealand flowers, 277
Hornbills, 107
Horns of beetles, probable use of, 202
Howling-monkeys, 118
Humming-birds, number of, 124, 133
distinctness of, 125, 129
structure of, 125
colours and ornaments of, 127
descriptive names of, 129
motions and habits of, 130
display of ornaments by males, 134
food of, 135
nests of, 137
geographical distribution and variation of, 138
of Juan Fernandez, 140
influenced by varied conditions in South America, 147
relations and affinities of, 148
sternum of, 151
eggs of, 152
feather-tracts of, 152
resemblance of swifts to, 152
nestlings of, 153
differences from sun-birds, 154
I.
Iguanas, 113
Indian peninsula once an island, 325
ancient fauna of, 325
Insects, wingless, 97
general observations on tropical, 98
Insular plants and insects, relations of, 267
Interference-colours in animals, 184
Islands, influence of locality on colour in, 257
J.
Jacamars, 105
Juan Fernandez, humming-birds of, 140
insects of, 270
abundance of humming-birds in, 273
L.
Land and sea, peculiar distribution of, 311
existing distribution of, very ancient, 312
Leaf-insects, 92
Leaves, supposed use of odours of, 277
Lemuria, an hypothetical continent, not required, 328
Leopoldinia major, 45
Lepidoptera, diurnal, 72
Leptalis, a good case of mimicry, 189
Leptena erastus, 256
Light, theory of, as producing colours, 161
action of, on plants, 222
supposed direct action of, on colours of flowers and fruits, 236
Lizards, 111
Local causes of colour-development, 216
Locusts, richly-coloured tropical, 94
Longicorns, 95
Lophornis ornatus, very pugnacious, 214
Lord Howe’s Island, white rail in, 264
Lubbock, Sir John, on colour-perception in insects, 255
M.
Macaws, 100
Madagascar, white-marked butterflies of, 260
Madagascar once united to Africa, 325
Madagascar and Malaya, resemblances of fauna of, 328
Male birds, origin of ornamental plumage of, 205
Male birds which incubate, 212
Male humming-birds produce a shriller sound, 215
Males, theory of display of ornaments by, 207
Malva sylvestris, M. rotundifolia, 233
Mammals, 116
Mammalia, supposed variations of, comparable to those of butterflies, 261
local resemblances of, in Africa, 262
Mammalia of Palæarctic Region, 315
of Ethiopian Region, 317
of Oriental Region, 319
of Miocene period in Euro-Asia, 321
Man, antiquity and origin of, 280
indications of extreme antiquity of, 285
highly developed at very early period, 286
antiquity of intellectual, 290
Mangroves, 58
Manicaria saccifera, 41
Mantidæ, 91
Mantis resembling an orchis-flower, 173
Marantaceæ, 47
Marmosets, 118
Marshall, Messrs. on barbets, 106
Martins, M. Charles, on increased size of leaves of arctic plants, 236
Mates readily found by birds, 200
Mauritia, palm, 40
Maximiliana regia, 41
Meiglyptes, 150
Meldola, Mr. R., on variable colouring in insects, 170
Meliphagidæ in Auckland Isles probably flower-fertilizers, 239
Melliss, Mr., on flora of St. Helena, 275
Migrations between N. America and Euro-Asia, 334
between N. America and South America, 335
Mesembryanthemum, stone, 223
Meteorological phenomena, intensity of, at the equator, 23
Mimicry, theory of, 189
Mimosa pudica, 59
Mivart, Professor, on animal origin of man, 284
on the divergent affinities of man and apes, 288
Mongredien, Mr., on showy and fragrant flowers, 230
Monkeys, 116
Monkeys and pigeons, 102
Moseley, Mr., on humming-birds of Juan Fernandez, 143
Moseley, Mr. H. N., on birds conveying seeds to islands, 268
Moths, conspicuously-coloured caterpillars of, uneatable, 175
Motmots, 105
Mott, Mr. Albert, on antiquity of intellectual man, 291
Mounds of N. America, antiquity of, 296
Mound-builders, a semi-civilized race, 297
Müller, Dr. Hermann, on fertilization of alpine flowers, 232
on fertilization of Martagon lily, 231
on variations of insect-fertilized flowers, 275
on differences of allied species of flowers, 233
Musa paradisiaca, 48
Musaceæ, 48
Mygale, a bird-catching spider, 97
Mysis chameleon, changes of colour of, 171
N.
Nearctic Region, mammalia of, 329
birds of, 330
Neotropical region, mammalia of, 331
birds of, 332
Nests of humming-birds, 137
Newton, Professor, on appearance of living humming-birds, 130
New Zealand, poor in flowers and insects, 235
New World, regions of the, 329
North American earthworks, 292
Nuttall, Mr., on the rufous flame-bearer, 131
Nymphalidæ, local resemblances of species of distinct genera of, 257
O.
Oceanic Islands, peculiar floras of, 269
theory of, 307
Odontomachus, genus of ants, 82
Odour deficient in New Zealand flowers, 277
Odours absorbed unequally by differently coloured stuffs, 266
of flowers attractive, 230
Œcodoma cephalotes, 85
Œcophylla smaragdina, 82
Ogle, Dr., on colour and sense-perception, 265
Oil from palms, 45
Oncidiums, 51
Optical theory of colour, 180
Orchids, 49
Oriental Region, 319
Ornamental humming-birds, the most pugnacious, 214
Ornaments, display of, by male humming-birds, 134
Orthoptera, 91
P.
Palæarctic Region, 314
Palms, 40
height of, 41
climbing, 41
Palm-wine, 43
Palm-trees, uses and products of, 42–46
Pandanaceæ, 49
Papilio, pale varieties of, in Moluccas and New Guinea, 258
Papilionidæ and Nymphalidæ, local resemblances of, 255
Papilio nireus, changes of colour of pupa of, 168
Parrots, 99
red in Moluccas and New Guinea, 264
black in New Guinea and Madagascar, 264
Passeres, 108
Phyllostoma, 120
Phasmidæ, 91–93
Phœnix sylvestris, 45
Phaëthornithinæ, 136
Pheasants, brilliant plumage of, in cold countries, 163
Pheidole, genus of ants, 84
Philippine Islands, metallic colours of butterflies of, 259
white-marked birds of, 263
Picariæ, 103
Pickering, Mr., on plants of Pacific Islands, 269
Pieridæ and Lycænidæ, local resemblances of, 256
Pigeons, 102
black in Australia and Madagascar, 264
Pigs, white poisoned in Virginia, black not, 265
Pipes from N. American mounds, 295
Plantain, 48
Plantain-eaters, 197
Plants, protective coloration in, 223
Platycerium, 47
Plumage of tropical birds, 109
of humming-birds, 128
Polyrachis, genus of ants, 81
Polyalthea, tree with flowers on trunk, 35
Polygonum bistorta, P. aviculare, 233
Pontia rapæ, changes of colour of chrysalis of, 168
Ponera clavata, terrible sting of, 82
Portraits on sculptured pipes from mounds, 295
Prosthemadera in the Auckland Isles, 239
Protective colours, theory of, 187
Psittacula diopthalma, sexual difference of colour of, 178
Pterylography, 151
Pyramid, the Great, 298
the Great, indicates an earlier civilization, 300
Pythons, 115
R.
Rabbits, why white-tailed, 197
Rainbow, how described by ancient writers, 245
Rainfall at London and Batavia, diagram of, 15
Rainfall, greatest recorded at Batavia, 24
Ramsay, Prof. on ancient fresh-water deposits, 313
Raphia tædigera, 41
Rattan-palms, 42
Recognition aided by colour, 196
Reed, Mr., on humming-birds in Juan Fernandez, 146
Mr. Edwyn C., on insects of Juan Fernandez, 270
Reptiles, 111
Reptiles of oceanic islands, 309
Rhamphococcyx, 105
S.
Salvin, Mr., on the pugnacity of humming-birds, 134, 214
Saüba ant, 85
Saxifraga longifolia, 233
S. cotyledon, 233
S. oppositifolia, 233
Scorpions, 97
Screw-pines, 49
Scythrops, 105
Seeds, how protected, 226
Sensitive-plants, 59
Sexes of butterflies differently coloured for recognition, 196
Sexual colours, 177
theory of, 192
Sexual selection not a cause of colour, 198
neutralized by natural selection, 210
Sickle-bill humming-bird, 136
Size, correspondence of, in tropical flowers and insects, 236
Sky, colour of not mentioned in old books, 245
Smith, Mr. Worthington, on mimicry in fungi, 223
Smyth, Professor Piazzi, on the Great Pyramid, 298
Snakes, 114
Sobralias, 51
Soil, heat of, 8
influence of temperature on climate, 8
Solenopsis, genus of ants, 84
Sorby, Mr., on composition of chlorophyll, 221
South America, extinct fauna of, 336
geographical changes of, 338
its parallelism with Africa, 339
an area of preservation of ancient types, 339
Spices from equatorial forest-trees, 36
Spiders, 97
Spruce, Dr. Richard, on number of ferns at Tarrapoto, 47
on inconspicuousness of tropical flowers, 61
on use of aromatic secretions of leaves, 278
Stainton, Mr., on insects attacking scented leaves, 277
Stick-insects, 92
St. Helena, indigenous flowers of, 275
St. John, Mr., on large python, 115
Structure of humming-birds, 125
Sugar from palm-trees, 44
Sunda Islands and Japan once joined to Asia, 326
Sun-birds, differences from humming-birds, 154
Sun’s noonday altitude in Java and London compared, 6
Sun’s rays, heating effect of, 7
Sunrise in the equatorial zone, 22
Swifts, resemblances of to humming-birds, 152
Symmachia trochilus, 75
colubris, 75
T.
Tahiti, preponderance of ferns in, 269
Temperature of London and Batavia compared, 6
of different latitudes, various causes of, 7
Temperature, influenced by heat of soil, 8
influenced by aqueous vapour of atmosphere, 9
Temperature of tropical and temperate zones, cause of, illustrated, 12
Tertiary faunas and their relations, 344, 347
Thaumastura cora, very pugnacious, 214
Timor and Scotland, climates compared, 14
Timor and Flores, white-marked birds of, 263
Toucans, 106
Tree-frogs, 116
Tristan d’Acunha, bright-coloured Pelargonium of, 275
Trochilidæ, 125
Trogons, 105
Tropical vegetation, concluding remarks on, 65
probable causes of its luxuriance and variety, 66
Mr. Belt on, 67
Tropical birds, dull-coloured, 110
coloration of, 110
green, 110
Tropics, limitation of, 3
aspects of animal life in, 121
Trunks, variety of, 31, 33
probable cause of flowering, 34
Twilight, short at equator, 21
Typical colours, 179
V.
Vanda lowii, 51
Vampyre-bats, 119
Variation, how influenced, 142
Vegetation, equatorial, 27
Vipers, green, 114
Vitality a cause of bright colour, 193
W.
Warning Colours, theory of, 189
Wasps and bees, 90
Wave-lengths of coloured rays, 180
Weale, Mr. J. P. Mansel, on plants of Karoo, 223
on Ajuga ophrydis, 223
Webber, Mr., on food of humming-birds, 137
West-Indian Islands, large and brilliant butterflies of, 261
peculiarly coloured birds of, 262
Whip-snakes, 114
White animals poisoned where black escape, 265
White colours influencing sense-perception, 265
White colour doubly prejudicial to animals, 266
White tropical birds, 110
Wilson, Dr., on pottery from N. American mounds, 295
Winds, influence of on temperature, 11
direction of near equator, 11, 12
cause of cold near equator, 12, 13
Wolves in England show its union with continent, 305
Woods from equatorial forest-trees, 36
Z.
Zebra, possible use of its stripes, 197
Zingiberaceæ, 47
Zoological regions, 314
Zoological regions of the New World, 329