I have now to notice some of the other great fairs of France. And here it has to be remarked that while the later sovereigns—certainly down to Louis XV.—adopted the regulations already reviewed, for their model in the government of fairs, yet that there were some necessary deviations, according as time, place, and other circumstances demanded. The chief of these deviations will be noted in the following summary, wherein I review the provincial fairs first, and afterwards those in and around Paris.
Postlethwayt, in his “Dictionary of Trade,” from which some of the preceding and following details are drawn, remarks, not with entire clearness: “Though it be not essential to these meetings of traders to have comedians, rope-dancers, and the like, yet there are few considerable ones without enough of them; and, perhaps, is what greatly contributes to the trade of them—the nobility and country gentry greatly flocking to them, more for their diversion than what they buy there, which might be had, perhaps, better and cheaper at home. It is well known how the nobility of Languedoc flock to the fair of Beaucaire, and those of Normandy to that of Guibray; but it is nothing in comparison to the assembly of German princes and nobles at the three fairs of Leipzic, and the two of Frankfort-on-the-Main.” He was writing in the first half of the last century. Things are now much changed.
Beaucaire (in Languedoc).—An important town, whose manufactures consist of silks, red wines, taffetas, olive oil, and pottery. But its trade is chiefly due to its great fair, held annually between 1st and 28th July, the site extending from the Rhône to the base of the Castle Rock. This fair was established in 1217 by Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, and was for many ages attended by merchants and manufacturers from all countries in Europe, and even from Persia and Armenia. Arthur Young visited it in 1788, and records (“Travels in France”) that the business transacted at it reached 10 million livres—£439,000. So late as 1833 it drew together 60,000 persons, and the amount of its transactions were stated to be 150 millions of francs—£6,000,000! This would appear to be an over-estimate.
I believe the fair now only lasts one week, namely from 22nd to 28th July inclusive. It is a rule that all bills must be presented on the 27th, and protested if necessary on 28th—last day of the fair. The trade in linen and cloth is very large.
Besançon.—This ancient city, a great centre of warfare and of trade from the days of the Cæsars, had once a fair of great celebrity. At a later period it was chiefly notable for carrying on the business of exchange. This business had been perfected at the fairs of Lyons, from whence it passed here. On the first day of the fair the merchants of a certain standing announced the terms on which they were willing to exchange with different countries, and on the second day an authoritative declaration was made of the fair terms of exchange with any foreign country. For this purpose, with the constant fluctuations in all actual coinage, it was necessary to have a unit which should be common to all lands, and free from the possibility of depreciation. Hence everything was reckoned by means of an imaginary unit—scutus marcharum, or money of account: so that the form which the business took was not that of buying bills, but of exchanging these fictitious coins, made realizable in one town, for quantities of actual coinage of another country, according to the authoritatively declared rate, which took account of the difficulty of transport, and of various risks. A scutus marcharum was worth in Genoa 67⅓ soldi of the actual coinage of the place. The question to be settled was what, at this time, shall be paid in Piacenza for a scutus marcharum in Genoa? This was the fair rate of exchange, and the announcement of it was intended to exclude the operations of private speculators (in which it was not entirely successful), and to secure a division of the advantage among each of the parties transacting business. Vide Cunningham’s “English Industry and Commerce,” 1882, p. 278.
Bordeaux.—This city has or had two fairs annually—one commencing on the 1st March, the other on the 15th October; they each continued fifteen days. The October fair was generally the more considerable.
The chief commodities disposed of were wines and brandies, and it was no unusual sight to see several hundreds of vessels beyond the usual average number in the port, some of these being of unusually large tonnage.
The fairs had the same privileges with those of Champagne, Lyons, Paris, and Poictou. The consular judges performed the office of conservators, with the same jurisdiction as those of Lyons.
Caen (Normandy).—This free fair was once very famous. It begins the day after Low Sunday, and lasts fifteen days, of which the first eight were designated the “great week,” the other portion the lesser, because formerly the franchises lasted only the first eight; and because the concourse of strangers was much greater during the early week of the fair.
The merchants dealt in merchandise of all kind, but woollen manufactures were the great speciality. The shops in which the dealers expose their goods here are designated “Lodges.” A considerable number of horses and of cattle were brought to it from the provinces of Normandy. This fair was regarded as next in importance to that of Guibray.
It seems that in 1433 there was an attempt to despoil this fair, by an attack of 700 horsemen, of which I find the following brief record:—“Whereupon they sent the Lord Ambrose de Lore, with vii. c. horsemen, to robbe and spoyle the poore people, commynge to the faier, on the daye of Sainct Michaell the Archangell, kepte in the Suberbes of the toune of Caen.”—Hall, Hen. VI. ann. ii.
During the year several smaller and ordinary fairs are held for the sale of horses, cattle, butter, and poultry.
Dieppe.—This is a free fair of comparatively modern date, said to be the last authorized in France, having been founded by letters patent in 1696. It was first opened on 1st December that year. It continues for fifteen days. All foreigners are at liberty freely to trade here, and goods declared to be for the fair are not liable to seizure while the fair lasts; nor were they liable to inspection by the wardens—a relaxation of practice apparently not quite in the interest of the buyers.
Its franchises and privileges are, that all goods brought into the port of Dieppe during the fair, and there sold or bartered, are exempt from one moiety of duties inwards and outwards. And merchandise imported and not sold during the fair may be carried out free of customs.
Guibray (Lower Normandy).—A fair of very considerable importance, lasting from 10th to 25th August, was held here. Arthur Young, of agricultural fame, describes in his “Travels in France” (1788), a visit to it on 22nd August, and records as follows: “At this fair of Guibray merchandise is sold, they say, to the amount of six millions (£260,500) ... I found the quantity of English goods considerable, hard and queen’s ware; cloth and cottons. A doz. of common plain knives, 3 livres; and 4 livres for a French imitation, but much worse.” It was a feature of this fair that the resident gentry for long distances around came here to make their purchases.
Lyons.—It has been supposed that the ancient fairs of this city were founded on a special privilege granted by the Roman conquerors. They are four in number—the first is that of the Epiphany, which always begins in January, the Monday after the twelfth day; the second is Easter fair, beginning on St. Nisier’s day in April; the third in August, which begins on St. Dominick’s day in that month; and the fourth is the fair of All Saints, beginning on St. Hubert’s day, in November. The situation of this city, at the confluence of the Saône and the Rhône, render it unrivalled for the facilities of water carriage through some of the richest parts of France.
These fairs were of the highest mercantile repute, and at a very early period bills of exchange were brought into requisition in the adjustment of the accounts for merchandise purchased there. It seems also that bills resulting from commercial dealings in many other parts of Europe were made payable at the Lyons fairs.
Fixed days for payment followed each fair. The ceremonies attending these days were as follows: The chief magistrate came to the lodge of the Exchange, accompanied by his registrar and six syndics, viz., two French, two Italian, and two Swiss or Germans; and there, after a short discourse to the assistants, recommending probity in trade, and observance of the laws, customs, and usages of the place, the laws, customs, and usages were read in extenso; and the clerk drew up a process verbal of the opening of the “payment.” The next day they met at the City-hall, and by plurality of voices settle the course of exchange for all cities with which Lyons had any commercial correspondence. This custom prevailed for some centuries; and even when the strict regulations here described were frequently departed from, the regulations were capable of being enforced on appeal.
When bills were drawn to be paid at one of these appointed times at Lyons, which had not then begun, the drawer said “pay this my first of Exchange, &c., in the next Epiphany (or other) payment;” but if the payment had already begun, the bill had to be drawn payable “in this current or present payment of Epiphany” (or other term). The bills so drawn were to be accepted in the first six days of the payment they were made payable in; and the person on whom they were drawn was not obliged to declare whether he would or not accept until the sixth day. But after that day the bearer might protest them for non-acceptance, though he might detain them during the whole time of that “payment,” to see whether any one offered to discharge them. The protest, however, was immediately forwarded to the remitters; and if any one paid a bill in the time of the payment before the sixth day (or that being a feast day, the day following) it was at his own risk.
The bearers of bills not satisfied by the last day of any “payment” were to protest them on the third day after the payment finished, otherwise they lost their right as against the drawers; but if this were done in form, and in the time prescribed, the holder might afterwards refuse payment from any one that offered it, and take his reimbursement upon the drawer, alike for principal and charges. And the said holders of bills were obliged to take their reimbursement on the drawers or indorsers in a time limited, viz., for all bills drawn from any part of France, in two months; those which were from Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, Flanders, and England, in three months; and those which were drawn from Spain, Portugal, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark, in six months, to be counted from the date of the protest; or in default thereof they lost their rights against the drawers and indorsers. See Besançon.
The general reader must pardon these details, which are of commercial significance. It was customary at an early period to make the bills drawn from Amsterdam and elsewhere on the “payment” of Lyons, in “golden crowns of the sun;” but when this specie became decried in France, the usage of exchange came to be to draw for the payment of Lyons (as was practised in France generally), viz., in crowns of sixty sous, equal to the present English half-crown. These practices may be compared with the usages of Nuremburg, Frankfort, and Leipzig fairs.
The franchises of the fairs of Lyons in the early half of the last century had this special feature: that all goods intended for foreign countries, sent out of this city during the fifteen days of either fair, paid no customs outwards, provided the bales and parcels were marked with the city arms, and had certificates of franchise properly made out. To enjoy this privilege the merchandise had to be sent out of the kingdom before the first day of the following fair, unless special permission for delay had been obtained.
There is reason to believe that a considerable trade in books was transacted at these fairs during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
These fairs have a great history, which cannot be followed up here, and there is the less need to make the attempt because the inquiry is already in competent hands, those of Mr. Chancellor Christie, of Darley House, Matlock. The authorities which may be consulted are the following:—
1. “Ordonnances et priviléges des Foires de Lyon, et leur antiquité avec celle de Brie et Champagne et la confirmation d’ialles par sept roys de France.” Printed at Lyons in 1560, and subsequently.
2. “Cat. de la Bib. Lyonnaise a M. Costa redige par Aime Vingtrisme.” (Lyon, Brun, 1853.) Pp. 458-61. Nos. 10,353-10,415.
3. A Memoir addressed to Charles VIII. in 1485, and presented by M. Pericaud ainé in his privately printed “Notes et documents pour servir a l’histoire de Lyon, 1483-1546” (Lyons, 1840).
4. In the “Proces de Bandiction de la Maison Neuve Accusé d’heresia à Lyon 1534,” printed by Fick, Geneva, in 1873.
Montrichard (in Touraine).—This fair was famous for the great concourse of traders to it from all the provinces of the kingdom; but particularly for the great trade in woollen stuffs, amounting on an average to some 12,000 pieces at each fair.
Rheims.—This city had formerly four fairs; it has now two only, May and October—the great fair on St. Remigius’ day. These were all free fairs, two of the original fairs lasting eight days, the others but three days. Their franchises were mainly the same as those of Champagne. A very large commerce was in early times transacted at these.
Rouen.—This ancient trading city had two fairs; the one called Candlemas fair, beginning on the 3rd February, and the other called Pentecost fair, opening the day after the festival. They each continued fifteen days, and were much frequented by foreigners, particularly the Dutch, British (English and Scotch), and those of other northern nations; its advantageous position for trade, by reason of facilities of water carriage, offering great inducements to the concourse of foreign traders.
Goods sold and exchanged at these fairs, and carried out of the city during the fifteen days, paid but half dues outwards.
Toulon.—This town—the Plymouth of France—has a fair, not designated “free,” which commences on 3rd November, and continues “fifteen working days.” Its franchises, granted in 1708, were that no goods while it lasts are subject to any duties; and all traders, alike French and foreigners, enjoy the franchises and liberties granted to the fairs of Lyons, Brie, Champagne, Rouen, and other cities. These underwent some modifications in the following year, at the instance of the farmers-general of the revenues of France.
Troyes.—This town (one of the cities in Champagne) was noted in the middle ages for its great fairs, of which there were two—one being fixed to the Monday after the Second Sunday in Lent; the other commencing on 1st September. Philip of Valois granted the privileges of these fairs.
A lasting record of the importance of the dealings thereat is handed down to us in the form of “Troy (Troyes) weight,” used in connection with dealings in the precious metals. It is said that this system of weights was brought from Cairo by the crusaders, and was first and permanently adopted as the standard of weight in the dealings of the fairs of Troyes. Hence it may be inferred that the trading was largely in the precious metals, in spices, and in drugs.[9]
Goods sold at these fairs were exempted from all customs outwards, local dues excepted, under certain restrictions.
It is recorded especially of these fairs, that they had a staff of notaries for the attestation of bargains, courts of justice, police officers, sergeants for the execution of the market judges’ decrees, and visitors—the prud’hommes—whose duty it was to examine the quality of goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate those found unfit for consumption. The confiscation required the consent of five or six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
Sismondi, in his “History of the Italian Republics,” writing of the events of the thirteenth century, says:
The Tuscan and Lombard merchants however trafficked in the barbarous regions of the West, to carry there the produce of their industry. Attracted by the franchises of the Fairs of Champagne and of Lyons, they went thither, as well to barter their goods as to lend their capital at interest to the nobles, habitually loaded with debt; though at the risk of finding themselves suddenly arrested, their wealth confiscated by order of the King of France, and their lives too sometimes endangered by sanctioned robbers, under the pretext of repressing usury. Industry, the employment of a superabundant capital, the application of mechanism and science to the production of wealth, secured the Italians a sort of monopoly through Europe: they alone offered for sale what all the rich desired to buy; and notwithstanding the various oppressions of the barbarian kings, notwithstanding the losses occasioned by their own oft-repeated revolutions, their wealth was rapidly renewed.
Inspectors of Fairs.—In the course of the preceding notices of the chief fairs of France various references have been made to the inspection of goods, as forming part of the regulations of such fairs. These inspectors were appointed by the state. It was their business to attend at all fairs where there was any considerable trade in woollen and other textile fabrics; to inspect and mark them; and if deficient or not conformable to the authorized regulations, to seize them. Such examination it is obvious required to be made with great circumspection and reserve, and at hours suited to the convenience alike of buyers and sellers. The inspectors were usually accompanied, in the performance of their duties, by the judge of the police of manufactures, and the wardens and jurats of trades in the respective places.
Some free fairs had their own judges and particular jurisdiction.
An examination of M. Bottin’s “View of the Fairs of France” goes to show that they took place mostly on the frontiers of the kingdom, or on the marches of ancient provinces; or at the foot of high mountains, or at the beginning or end of the snow season, which for months shuts up the inhabitants in their valleys; or in the neighbourhood of the famous cathedrals or churches frequented by flocks of pilgrims; or in the middle of rich pasture tracks. But there are some marked exceptions to these rules.
The establishment and abolition of fairs—with the exception of cattle markets and the markets of the metropolis—are now generally left to the discretion of the departmental prefects.