[686] Cato agr 5, 83, 143.
[687] Cato agr 2 § 1.
[688] Cato agr 13 § 1 duo custodes liberi ... tertius servus ... etc.
[689] Ibid 66 ubi factores vectibus prement.
[690] Ibid 64 § 1.
[691] Ibid 144.
[692] Ibid 144-5.
[693] Ibid 146.
[694] Ibid 149 § 2.
[695] Ibid 150.
[696] Ibid 66-7.
[697] Ibid 56.
[698] Ibid 10 § 1, 11 § 1.
[699] It is to be noted that bubulci are to be indulgently treated, in order to encourage them to tend the valued oxen with care. 5 § 6.
[700] Ibid 56 compeditis ... ubi vineam fodere coeperint. Cf Columella I 9 § 4.
[701] Ibid 14.
[702] Ibid 16, 38.
[703] Ibid 136. In 5 § 4 the politor appears as a hired wage-earner, apparently paid by the job. In Varro III 2 § 5 we find fundo ... polito cultura. See Nonius p 66 M for politiones = agrorum cultus diligentes. Greenidge hist p 79 regards the politores as métayer tenants, why, I do not know.
[704] Ibid 7 § 2, 21 § 5.
[705] Ibid 5, especially § 4 operarium, mercennarium, politorem diutius eundem ne habeat die. This is taken by Wallon II pp 100, 345, to mean that these hired men are to be paid off at the end of their stipulated term. Keil thinks they are to be dischargeable at a day’s notice. eundem seems to imply that it was convenient to change your hired men often.
[706] Ibid 2 § 2, and § 4 viam publicam muniri.
[707] The account given in Greenidge’s History of Rome deserves special reference here. On pp 266-7 he well points out that it was not the Gracchan aim to revive the free labourer but the peasant proprietor.
[708] This is known from the lex agraria of which a large part is preserved. See text in Bruns’ Fontes or Wordsworth’s Specimens. Translated and explained in Dr E G Hardy’s Six Roman Laws.
[709] Perhaps some inference may be drawn from Sallust Iug 73 § 6 plebes sic accensa uti opifices agrestesque omnes, quorum res fidesque in manibus sitae erant, relictis operibus frequentarent Marium ... etc, though this refers directly to political support, not to the recruiting of troops.
[710] See the important paper by Dr E G Hardy Journ Phil 1913.
[711] Monum Ancyr III 22 [cap XVI].
[712] Varro RR I 2 §§ 3, 6. I find since writing this that Heisterbergk Entstehung des Colonats p 57 treats this utterance, rightly, as rhetorical.
[713] See Mr Storr-Best’s translation, Introduction pp xxvii-xxx.
[714] RR I 4 § 5. Surely in 49 Varro was in Spain.
[715] As in RR II praef § 6.
[716] The wild hill-pastures are referred to by Varro RR II 1 § 16 as still leased to publicani to whom the scriptura or registration fees had to be paid. I have given further references in my Roman Republic § 1351. See M Weber Römische Agrargeschichte pp 135 foll.
[717] RR I 18.
[718] RR I 17.
[719] RR I 6-16.
[720] [genus] vocale, semivocale, mutum.
[721] These are specimens only. Others would be hired freemen, asses, and (near a river) barges.
[722] ipsi suggests peasant owners.
[723] pauperculi cum sua progenie.
[724] mercennariis ... conducticiis liberorum operis.
[725] obaerarios or obaeratos, who work off a debt by labour for a creditor.
[726] de quibus universis. This seems to refer to all human workers.
[727] gravia loca. Cf I 12 § 2.
[728] operarios parandos esse, not conducendos, for these are clearly slaves. Cf I 16 § 4.
[729] The text here is damaged. I give the apparent meaning.
[730] qui praesint, a very general expression.
[731] That is, obedience.
[732] offensiones domesticas. Varro may have in mind the Syrians in the Sicilian slave-wars and the Thracians and Gauls under Spartacus.
[733] peculium.
[734] Here also the text is doubtful.
[735] RR II 3 § 7 in lege locationis fundi excipi solet ne colonus capra natum in fundo pascat.
[736] RR I 2 § 17 leges colonicas ... etc.
[737] Caesar BC I 34, 56.
[738] servis libertis colonis suis.
[739] colonis pastoribusque.
[740] As a creditor on a debtor.
[741] RR I 16 § 4 itaque in hoc genus coloni potius anniversarios habent vicinos, quibus imperent, medicos fullones fabros, quam in villa suos habeant.
[742] RR II praef § 5, cf I 2 § 13 foll, and Columella VI praef §§ 1, 2.
[743] They evidently own slaves, though not special craftsmen, and are distinct from the pauperculi of I 17 § 2.
[744] RR II praef §§ 3, 4.
[745] RR III 16 §§ 10, 11.
[746] RR II 10 §§ 4, 5.
[747] RR I 22 § 1. Basket work is often referred to in scenes of country life. Cf Verg buc II 71-2, georg I 266.
[748] RR III 3 § 4, 17 § 6.
[749] Cf Cato 56, Columella I 9 § 4.
[750] RR I 18 §§ 2, 6.
[751] valetudini tempestati inertiae indiligentiae.
[752] In RR III 2 § 5 cum villa non sit sine fundo magno et eo polito cultura the reference is quite general.
[753] This is well illustrated by the words of Cicero de republ V § 5.
[754] As in his opinion the younger Cato did.
[755] See pro Murena § 62, where disputandi causa is opposed to ita vivendi.
[756] See Brutus § 257, de orat I §§ 83, 263, II § 40, de finibus V § 52, Tusc disp I § 34, III § 77, V § 104. The messores whose rustic brogue is referred to in de orat III § 46 surely are free Italians.
[757] From lack of the ingenuae artes and liberales doctrinae etc.
[758] de offic I § 150 inliberales autem et sordidi quaestus mercennariorum omnium quorum operae non quorum artes emuntur: est enim in illis ipsa merces auctoramentum servitutis.
[759] The operae often referred to.
[760] The familiae publicanorum. The publicani complained loudly when their slave-staff was in danger from the violence of others. Cf de imperio Pompei § 16.
[761] Cf the famous case of Clodius and Milo.
[762] Cf pro Rosc com §§ 32, 49, 54, pro Tullio § 21.
[763] For a discussion of these see Greenidge in the Appendix to The legal procedure of Cicero’s time.
[764] pro Tullio §§ 7-12.
[765] pro Tullio §§ 14-22.
[766] § 17 mittit ad procuratorem litteras et ad vilicum.
[767] To conduct of this kind Cicero makes a general reference in Paradoxa VI § 46 expulsiones vicinorum ... latrocinia in agris.
[768] pro Caecina §§ 10-19.
[769] pro Caecina § 1 in agro locisque desertis.
[770] pro Vareno fragm 5, pro Cluentio § 161, cf pro Tullio § 8.
[771] in toga candida fragm 11 alter pecore omni vendito et saltibus prope addictis pastores retinet, ex quibus ait se cum velit subito fugitivorum bellum excitaturum. For the fugitivi in Sicily cf II in Verrem II § 27, III § 66, IV § 112, V passim, and the famous inscription of Popilius, Wilmanns 797 and Wordsworth specimens pp 221, 475, CIL I 551, referring to first Sicilian slave-war.
[772] Brutus § 85.
[773] pro Roscio Amer §§ 39-51.
[774] pro Caecina §§ 58, 63.
[775] Thus in pro Cluentio § 163 a disreputable tool is mercennarius Oppianici.
[776] de officiis I § 151 quorum ordini conveniunt.
[777] de officiis I § 41.
[778] II in Verrem I § 147, IV § 77.
[779] Thus of orators, Brutus § 297, de orat I §§ 83, 263, cf II § 40. Also opifex in Tusc disp V § 34.
[780] de orat I § 249 si mandandum aliquid procuratori de agri cultura aut imperandum vilico est.
[781] pro Tullio § 17 mittit ad procuratorem litteras et ad vilicum.
[782] Cicero’s own estate at Arpinum seems to have been let in praediola to tenants. See ad Att XIII 9 § 2.
[783] pro Caecina §§ 17, 57, 94.
[784] pro Caecina § 57, cf 63. So in § 58 the word familia is shewn not to be limited to slaves personally owned by the litigant referred to.
[785] II in Verrem III §§ 53-5, and passim. These arationes paid decumae.
[786] pro Cluentio §§ 175, 182.
[787] de orat II § 287.
[788] de republ V § 5, where the perfect ruler is a sort of blend of dispensator and vilicus.
[789] pro Plancio § 62.
[790] II in Verrem III § 119.
[791] pro Rabirio §§ 10-17.
[792] hanc condicionem ... quam servi, si libertatis spem propositam non haberent, ferre nullo modo possent.
[793] Philippic VIII § 32.
[794] Cic ad fam XVI 16 § 1 eum indignum illa fortuna nobis amicum quam servum esse maluisti.
[795] pro Roscio Amer § 120 homines paene operarios.
[796] II in Verrem III § 27.
[797] quid, qui singulis iugis arant, qui ab opere ipsi non recedunt ... etc.
[798] The infamous henchman of Verres.
[799] Diodorus fragm XXXIV 2 § 48, XXXVI 5 § 6.
[800] de lege agr II §§ 80-3.
[801] See Beloch Campanien pp 304-6.
[802] de lege agr II § 84 agros desertos a plebe atque a cultura hominum liberorum esse non oportere.
[803] genus ... optimorum et aratorum et militum ... illi miseri, nati in illis agris et educati, glaebis subigendis exercitati ... etc.
[804] de lege agr II §§ 88-9 locus comportandis condendisque fructibus, ut aratores cultu agrorum defessi urbis domiciliis uterentur ... receptaculum aratorum, nundinas rusticorum, cellam atque horreum Campani agri ... etc.
[805] de lege agr II § 82 deinde ad paucos opibus et copiis adfluentis totum agrum Campanum perferri videbitis.
[807] Sallust Cat 4 § 1.
[808] Sallust Cat 37 § 7 iuventus, quae in agris manuum mercede inopiam toleraverat ... etc.
[809] Sallust Iug 73 § 6 opifices agrestesque omnes, quorum res fidesque in manibus sitae erant ... etc.
[810] Two notorious instances are Pompey and M Brutus.
[811] Horace Odes II 15, III 6, etc.
[812] Horace Odes IV 5, 15, etc.
[813] A picture forestalled by Lucretius III 1053-75.
[814] Already illustrated in the case of Cato noted above.
[815] See Cic de legibus III § 30. Cf Horace epodes IV.
[816] See Rostowzew, Röm Colonat, for detailed inquiry into Eastern phenomena, Egyptian in particular. For the case of China see reference to Macgowan [Appendix D 6]. A very interesting account of the system in Hindustan in the 17th century, with criticism of its grave abuses, may be found in the Travels in the Mogul empire by François Bernier, ed 2 by V A Smith, Oxford 1914, pages 226-38. I believe the legal phrase is ‘Eminent Domain.’
[817] In Greenidge, History pp 292-3, there are some good remarks on the process.
[818] Frontinus grom I p 35, Columella III 3 § 11, and Heisterbergk’s remarks cited below. See Index, Italian land and taxation.
[819] Tacitus ann II 59 seposuit Aegyptum hist I 11 domi retinere. This need not be taken to mean that he treated it strictly as part of his private estate, as Mommsen thought. See on the controversy a note of E Meyer Kl Schr p 479.
[820] See M Weber Agrargeschichte pp 243 foll.
[821] The estates of Atticus in Epirus are a leading case of this. Horace epist I 12 refers to those of Agrippa in Sicily. Such cases have nothing to do with emigration of working farmers, in which I do not believe. Surely Greenidge History p 270 is right in saying that the Gracchan scheme of colonization was commercial rather than agricultural. Also the municipalities, beside their estates in Italy, held lands in the Provinces. See Tyrrell and Purser on Cic ad fam XIII 7 and 11. In general, Seneca epist 87 § 7, 89 § 20, Florus II 7 § 3.
[822] We may perhaps carry this back into the time of the Republic. See the references to the royal domains of Macedon, Livy XLV 18 § 3, and with others Cic de lege agr II § 50.
[823] See the chapter on the African inscriptions.
[824] For the cases of India and China see references to Sir A Fraser and Macgowan [Appendix D 6].
[825] Tacitus ann XIV 27 records the failure of Nero’s colonization of veterans singly in Italy, who mostly returned to the scenes of their service. He strangely regrets the abandonment of the old plan of settling them in whole legions. It is to be remembered that in the later Empire the army was more and more recruited from the barbarians.
[826] The γῆ κληρουχική, assigned in κλῆροι to soldiers.
[827] See Herodotus II 165-7, cf 141, Strabo XV 1 § 40 (p 704), § 34 (p 701), § 54 (p 710), cf Diodorus II 40-1, Arrian Indica 10 §§ 8, 9. The references to slave-traffic in the Periplus maris Erythraei do not really imply existence of a slave-system in India. See Rapson Ancient India p 97. Much of interest in Sir J D Rees, The real India, on the Land-system etc. In The early history of India by V A Smith the existence of slavery in India is maintained.
[828] See Dionysius II 28, cf 8, 9.
[829] The operae referred to in the African inscriptions.
[830] It is possible to see a beginning of this system in the tenancy-on-shares (the colonia partiaria) which we find not only in Italy but in Africa as a recognized plan.
[831] This is the view of Rostowzew Röm Colonat p 397.
[832] Hor Sat II 7 23, Epist II 1 139-40.
[833] Hor Odes I 12.
[834] Odes II 15, 18, Sat II 6 6-15.
[835] Odes III 6.
[837] Odes III 1 redemptor cum famulis.
[838] Odes II 3, Epist II 2 177-8.
[839] Odes I 1, II 16, III 16.