The favorite colors were deep purple, red, and yellow. There was a very dark blue and a green described as the color of unripe grapes or frog colored. The materials used, were linen, wool, sometimes cotton, and silk. The costumes worn by the common people were of coarsely woven wool. The finest weaving was worn by the people of wealth. Design was important in the Greek costume. Sometimes it was an all over symmetrical pattern or a floral or an animal pattern. Even the human figure was used as a motif. A fragment having a naturalistic design of ducks embroidered in gold and green on a dark brown background has been found. These designs were sometimes woven into the material, sometimes embroidered, and very frequently painted upon the materials. Border designs beaten out in thin gold were not infrequently stitched onto the dress.

The chief and indispensable garment of a Greek woman was her peplos, which was a piece of material sewed together, open at top and bottom, and reaching from the neck to the feet. The width was equal to the extended arms. It was fastened over the shoulders with a kind of pin or fibula and about the waist with a girdle. Under this she wore a short undergarment. A similar but much shorter and simpler chiton was sometimes worn by the Greek men. The outer garment for both men and women was a kind of cloak or mantle made from an oblong of wool, 7 or 8 feet long by 5 or 6 feet wide. There were many ways of wearing this garment which was called the “himation.” Here is a description of the toilet of the Goddess Hera: “Then she clad her in her fragrant robe, that Athena wrought delicately for her, and therein set many things beautifully made, and fastened it over her breast with clasps of gold. And she girdled it with a girdle arrayed with a hundred tassels, and she set earrings in her pierced ears—earrings of three drops and glistening—and therefrom shone grace abundantly. And with a veil over all, the peerless goddess veiled herself—a fair, new veil, bright as the sun, and beneath her shining feet she bound goodly sandals.” (Lang, Leaf, & Myers.)

Roman Costumes. Roman dress was patterned after the Greek. It was unbelievably ample. The toga was a huge elliptical piece of cloth in length three times the height of the person who wore it and in width twice his height. Imagine the skill required to arrange this garment. The toga was of thin white woolen stuff. When bordered with purple, it denoted a person holding public office. A purple toga was always a mark of high office. It was sometimes embroidered in gold. Under the toga was worn a short garment called the tunica, which corresponded to the Greek chiton. The dress of a Roman matron corresponded to that of a Roman man. She wore a tunica, loose and without sleeves. Over this a stola which was belted at the waist and had sleeves. Out of doors, she wore the palla, which is identical with the Greek himation. Sandals and sometimes shoes were worn on the feet. These were bright colored and sometimes embroidered with gold and pearls. Roman jewelry lacked Greek refinement.

Costumes of the Early Church. What could be more dignified and beautiful than a mask built upon the history of the early church! The costumes for such a mask would be ecclesiastical in character and would reflect the influences of the Eastern and Western worlds. The materials of these costumes would be rich and colorful and of Byzantine design. The lines of the costumes would very closely resemble the state dresses of the Roman official dignitaries. The illustration shows how elaborate were the vestments of a bishop. In marked contrast but equally interesting were the habits worn by the monastic orders. Here is a brief description of the habits of several of these:

Benedictines wore gowns of black, white, or russet cloth, with white or black fur, and black cape and hood.

Augustines wore black cassocks under white full-sleeved tunics, over all black cloak and hood, square black cap.

Dominicans or Black Friars wore similar habit to that worn by the Augustine monks.

Franciscans or Gray Friars wore long, loose gray cassocks girded with a cord, a hood or cowl, and a cloak of the same.

Carmelite or White Friars wore habits of white throughout, but from about 1240 to 1290 their cloaks were parti-colored, white and red.

Crossed Friars wore blue habits with a plain red cross.

In the early church there were various orders of nuns. They lived in convents, apart from the world, and took the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Their costumes were of extreme simplicity and dignity, in keeping with their religious ideas. Each order had a distinctive costume of gray, blue, brown, white, or black. The materials were wool and linen. Note the full mantle, sleeves, and head-covering.

Crusaders’ Costumes. Every boy and girl who loves adventures has no doubt been thrilled by stories of the Crusaders. The story of Richard the Lion-hearted may come to your mind. This illustration shows you the kind of costumes that he and other Crusaders wore. Beginning in the year 1096, and during the two hundred years which followed, there were nine crusades. People from every country in Europe and from every class set forth for the conquest of Jerusalem and the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher. When these great companies of people set forth each wore the costume of his own country and class, but upon each surcoat was worn the cross. According to the order of Pope Urban II which read: “You are a soldier of the Cross, wear, then, on your shoulder the blood-red sign of Him who died for the salvation of your souls.” What a sight it must have been! Godfrey of Bouillon set forth from his province of Lorraine with 10,000 horsemen and 80,000 infantry, all bearing this blood-red cross upon their surcoats. Raymond of Toulouse led forth, it is said, with 160,000 horse and foot.

Out of the successes and failures of these great pilgrimages came the experience and inspiration that created the literature, architecture, and arts of the Middle Ages, and gave the Christian world many of its saints and martyrs.

XIIIth Century Costumes. One of the greatest expressions of this intensely religious age was the cathedrals. From the infinite number of statues that are carved upon their façades and especially their portals and those statues that are within the cathedrals, from the figures in their stained-glass windows, the brass effigies in their pavements, and their frescoes and paintings, came the most authentic and complete information about the costumes of this period. Illuminated manuscripts and tapestries, such as the Bayeux tapestry, are also valuable sources. Photographs and reproductions of all this material are available. If one is seriously interested in costume he can collect reproductions from a surprising number of sources, such as newspapers, especially the Sunday supplement, magazines, and postcards, and make them into a costume scrapbook.

The history of England from the time of William the Conqueror to that of King John and Magna Carta furnishes a wealth of material for the mask. Stories of William the Conqueror, Robin Hood and his Merry Men, the Canterbury Pilgrims and Ivanhoe, will come to your mind. English costumes show little change from the IXth to the XIVth Century. The men wore a sleeved tunic, rather short, partly open at the sides, confined by a girdle. Over this tunic, usually very plain, was worn a mantle. It was a universal custom to cross-bandage the legs from the knee down. Pointed caps and shoes or low boots were worn. Women wore long tunics or gowns with close-fitting sleeves, made loose and girt in about the waist. A short tunic with very wide sleeves at the wrist was worn over this. This garment was often richly embroidered. For the out of doors there was an extra mantle with hood. Beautiful ornaments of gold and bronze were worn by both men and women. Coverchiefs were worn over the head, encircling the face and covering the throat and shoulders. The coverchief later became the wimple. Women wore their hair flowing or in two braids brought forward over the shoulders. The men wore flowing hair and the two-pointed beard. The garments of royal persons were made of very rich materials.

An illuminated portrait of Eleanor of Acquitaine represents her “with a wimple with a circlet of gems; her under tunic fitting closely and having tight sleeves is gathered into a rich collar about her throat; over this dress is a long tunic, loose and flowing, bordered with ermine, its full and open sleeves being lined with fur; and over all, there is the ever-present mantle so adjusted that at the pleasure of the wearer it might be drawn over the head.”

Richard the Lion-hearted wore over a white under tunic a longer tunic and an almost equally long crimson dalmatic slit up at the sides. The latter garment had very full sleeves. The mantle of royal blue and gold was fastened in the center over the chest by a large morse. He wore gloves jeweled at the back of the hand, and enriched boots with spurs attached with buckled straps.

Here is a description of a XIIIth Century costume of King John. At a certain Christmas festival he appeared in a white damask tunic with jeweled girdle and gloves, his mantle being of red satin embroidered with sapphires and pearls.

XVth Century Costumes. Romances and ballads founded upon tales of chivalry are colorful material for the mask. These are most frequently laid in the XIVth and XVth centuries. This was the time when heraldry was at its height and there was great interest in armorial devices. These appeared on the rich costumes of the time, which were made from silk, satin, velvet, and cloth of gold. Women wore very long and full skirts, tight waists and sleeves. Rows of buttons appear on waists and sleeves. There is a loose girdle about the hips. The horned, steeple, and butterfly headdresses were most extravagant. Shoes had long, pointed toes. Long mantles were popular. The costumes of the men of the same century consisted of a tight-fitting tunic with tight sleeves, rows of buttons, loose girdle, long hose, shoes with pointed toes. Mantles were of the richest materials and these were splendidly adorned.

XVIth Century Costumes. Masks founded on the life of Columbus and the discovery of America will require costumes following those of the XVIth Century. The costume for men show trunk hose, a jerkin or jacket closed at the throat, sleeves cut and slashed, and a very short coat that was called a doublet. In addition to this there was a very full cloak or cape that hung from the shoulder; a little flat cap was worn with this costume. Short hair came into style early in this century. Women wore full skirts, sometimes extended by a kind of wheellike frame of whalebone that was known as a “farthingale,” tight waists, puffed and slashed sleeves, and wide muffs. The world was ransacked to find stuffs to satisfy the extravagance of the XVIth Century.

The colonial history of the United States is rich in material for pageants and masks. What could be more vivid and interesting than the story of the Pilgrims, Dutch founders of New York, or of the Cavaliers of Virginia? The costumes of these periods are well known to you.

The Cavalier of the XVIIth Century continued the extravagance of the XVIth Century. His hat was wide brimmed and befeathered. There was lace at his neck, wrist, and boot top. His doublet let his fine cambric shirt be seen at the waist.

The women were equally elegant. Loose sleeves were turned up at the elbows with bows of ribbon. A tight-fitting bodice came down over a full skirt divided in front to show an elaborate underskirt. A wide collar covered the shoulders. This was a time of patches, hair powder, face paints, great feather fans, and muffs of fur, and the wearing of small black masks, presumably as a protection from the sun.

The costume of the XVIIth Century most familiar to us is that of the Pilgrim. It reflects the protest against the worldliness and extravagance of the time. The hat was wide-brimmed and high-crowned, with a wide ribbon band. Plain, wide collars of linen fell over the shoulders of their simply cut garments, which were of home-spun linen or wool. Not all Pilgrims wore somber gray, brown, or black. Many chose deep red, blue, or plum color.

The characteristic features of the XVIIIth Century costume of the French court during the reign of Louis XV and Louis XVI are shown in the high ornate head, dress of the women, the small waist, the wide flounced skirt, the exquisite silk brocades, jeweled and painted fans. The men of this period wore as elegant costumes as the women and gave much thought to their wigs, laces, and snuffboxes.

The Colonial costume followed the XVIIth Century costume in America. It was directly influenced by the fashions set by Louis XV and Louis XVI. The costumes of the men of fashion of the colonies were made from satins, laces, and embroideries imported from France. Their periwigs and their enameled and jeweled snuffboxes were also French. The ladies of this period were equally exquisite. They wore full flounced skirts over huge whaleboned petticoats and tight bodices. Sloping shoulders, powdered wigs, painted faces, and patches were the fashion.

When you have decided upon the costume you wish to make, then comes the very practical problem of materials. These need not be expensive since satins, unbleached muslin, cambric, tarlatan, cheesecloth, and oilcloth can be made to give beautiful effects. The advantages of satin are that it has body and texture and comes in a great range of colors. It has the sheen of satin, and is fairly inexpensive. It can be block printed or stenciled with gold, silver, or colors, and made to resemble the richest fabrics. Cambric is less expensive, but has less body and texture. It, too, can be made very effective by block printing or stenciling. Designs taken from fine old textiles in museums or from books or plates can be sketched or traced and then adapted for stencil or block.

Cloth of gold or silver can be made by painting muslin, gauze, or net with gold or silver radiator paint. This can be stenciled by brushing the stencil pattern with rabbit’s foot glue, then removing the stencil and sprinkling the design with gold or silver powder. There are no materials more satisfactory than unbleached muslin or cheesecloth when they have been dyed. These are very inexpensive. The dyeing is not difficult and gives beautiful results for the small amount of time and effort spent. The better standard dyes are very satisfactory, and can be used either hot or cold. By combining the dyes in the same way that you would mix pigments (see page 94) you can produce any true tint or shade that you wish.

Rich effects are often produced by a second and third dipping. Very often colored cheesecloth gains by being redipped. As an illustration, a piece of blue cheesecloth dipped in a green dye bath becomes a lovely blue-green. Experiment with small pieces of your material before you dip the larger pieces.

The accessories of costumes, such as chains, brooches, girdles, and scabbards are often necessary. Beads of glass, wood, clay, macaroni, and various seeds can be painted, enameled, or gilded, and set into papier-mâché for crowns, brooches, bracelets, and earrings. Buttons and glass ornaments can be used in the same way.

The design of a costume must be considered even more than its materials. A designer is an artist who uses fabric, color, and line to create an impression and to express an idea. He should study the play, and understand its dramatic ideas and moods. If he does this, his costumes will be as expressive, if properly worn, as the words of the actors.

Historic costumes reflect in a remarkable way the life, tastes, and feelings of an earlier time. But historic costumes also require an artist to reproduce them. The designer of an historic costume should know a great deal about the people who first wore this particular kind of costume and why they wore it. He will then choose suitable materials and colors, and will try to reproduce characteristic lines and silhouettes.

Last but not least comes the wearing of a costume. This requires two very important things: intelligence and imagination. The wearer, as well as the designer, should know the life, customs, and manners of the period which the costume represents. If he does not know them how can he move and gesture and assume the characteristic attitudes which the period demands and bring the costume into harmonious relation with the setting?

A mask requires but few properties. A throne, a chair, or a stool may be sufficient, if well designed and of the proper period. A rich, colorful hanging or rug against a neutral background will draw your stage picture together and add dignity to a scene.

The throne and stool shown in the photograph on page 178 were made from beaver board, after designs of Gothic furniture. The design was first drawn on the beaver board; to the design were then glued pieces of rope clothesline, while small rolls of papier-mâché were glued on for the lowest relief. The entire surface was then covered with pieces of unbleached muslin which had been soaked in whiting, glue, and warm water. When this was dry a coat of dark earth-brown oil paint was applied. Lastly a small amount of gold was rubbed over the design. The result resembled rich carved wood.

Much can be done with papier-mâché in the making of minor properties, such as croziers, maces, harps, lutes, jewel boxes, helmets, shields, sword handles, and scabbards. Properties should add to the beauty of a scene, never dominate it. They will be much more convincing when they suggest rather than minutely imitate the actual object. A background may be no more than a box hedge and still be most charming.

Everyone is familiar with the beauty of woodland settings. Masks of spring, summer, and the harvest time of Shakespearean plays almost demand some such setting.

Masks of winter bring us indoors. Possibly the best indoor background is the simple gray curtain of velvet, velveteen, monks’ cloth, outing flannel, or cambric. Against it costumes are seen to advantage and lights of all colors may be thrown against it successfully.

Since a mask is a highly conventionalized form of drama, it is possible to use a background painted with appropriate decorative or symbolic designs. An illustration of this is the symbolic pine tree painted on the wall of the temple courtyard for the Japanese No dramas. Screens of various kinds are full of possibilities. In the church or Sunday school, classroom, auditorium, library, or settlement, in the yard, playground, or park, ingenuity, imagination, and taste will always create a fitting background.

CHAPTER V
The Mask with Pantomime, Music, and Dance

The wearing of masks made it difficult for the Greek actors to speak their lines. Naturally they came to rely upon gestures quite as much as upon words to carry their meaning to the audience. This interpretation by gesture led to the development of the art of pantomime.

The great pantomimists had wit and humor. They knew how to take a story and improve it in the telling. Their hands expressed more than their words, and their gestures were a language that all understood. Masks made it possible for each actor to assume different rôles, and his mimicking was in keeping with the character of the mask he wore.

It was no unusual thing in the Greek towns and cities to see a jolly company of these mimes and musicians in grotesque costumes, their faces masked or smeared with soot, riding in chariots through the streets so that they might advertise their plays. These plays were little dramas and comedies in which pantomime and music played an important part.

Pantomime was popular with the Romans and for this reason despised by the early Christians. It survived, nevertheless, through a few obscure actors and mountebanks. Gradually these mimics and their fellows banded themselves together. They appeared at festivals whenever they were summoned, only to disappear afterward into the deep obscurity of a stroller’s life.

The mimics, or jongleurs (as they were called in France in the early Middle Ages), kept alive the tradition of dramatic entertainment. Among the famous mimics was Taillefer, who rode into the battle of Hastings tossing his sword into the air and catching it again, while he sang songs of Roland and Charlemagne. In France and in England the pantomimist was welcome in castle, in convent, and on village green.

From the Vth Century on, the Church gave much thought to forms of dramatic public worship, and sought thereby to interest and instruct the people. Living pictures, accompanied by songs, were used to illustrate the gospel narrative. On great festival days, such as Christmas, Good Friday, and Easter, the priests performed in pantomime the incidents appropriate to the occasion. Out of these very simple rites grew the mysteries, miracles, and the elaborate morality plays in which pantomime played a very important part.

In addition to such sacred plays, there were no end of secular plays. These were given all over Europe by townsfolk and peasants, in the streets, at the fairs, and in the great halls of the castles. Among the most popular of the English folk plays were the St. George plays. These were acted at Christmas time by bands of masked townsmen and peasants who called themselves mummers. Several versions of these old St. George plays, which can still be adapted and used in a Christmas mask, have come down to us. Among the characters are St. George, the Doctor, Little Jack, Father Christmas, the old dragon, and the Morris men.

In Italy during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries there was a popular form of character comedy that was known as the Commedia dell’ arte. This was performed by bands of professional actors who strolled about the country giving their improvised plays to any chance audience. As time went on and their popularity grew, the more clever of these bands established themselves in theaters in the towns and cities, where they gave a great variety of performances. The principal characters of their plays were Harlequin, Scaramouch, Columbine, Pantalone, and Punchinello. These characters all wore masks and were adepts in the art of pantomime. These Italian musicians and actors of the Commedia dell’ arte traveled to Spain, France, and finally to England, where their boisterous humor was warmly welcomed by high and low. Here is an account of one part of the festivities that were given in Kenilworth, in the year 1576:

“Noow within allso ... waz thear showed before her Highness by an Italian, such feats of agilitie, in goinges, turninges, tumblinges, castinges, hops, jumps, leaps, skips, springs, gambauds, soomersaults, caprittiez and flights; forward, backward, sydewize, a downward, upward, and with sundry windings, gyrings and circumflexions; allso lightly and with such easiness, as by me in feaw words it is not expressible by pen or speech ... I bleast me by my faith to behold him, and began to doout whither a waz a man or a spirite.... Az for thiz fellow I cannot tell what to make of him, save that I may geese his back be metalld like a lamprey, that haz no bones but a line like a lute-string.”

Pantomime was popular in England during the Reformation and morality plays were given in dumb show.

French actors were greatly influenced by these clever traveling Italian artists. They set up similar plays at their great fairs and finally established a theater in Paris, in which music and pantomime were developed to the highest perfection.

Until recent years nearly all that we have known of the great tradition of pantomime came to us through the circus clowns. Among these were a few artists such as Grimaldi, who never allowed their art to become low and trivial.

Now, all this is quite changed, since the coming of the movie. The moving picture depends entirely upon pantomime for interpreting character and expressing emotion. The greatest of the movie actors are great pantomimists. When we study the movements and gestures and the facial expressions of such actors as Emil Jannings and Charlie Chaplin, we begin to understand what pantomime really is. Chaliapin is another great actor who understands the art of pantomime and uses it in opera.

Let us see how pantomime, music, and dance were used in the Christmas mask described at the end of chapter II “Occasions for Wearing the Mask.” Masks for this play had been made for the following characters: a dignified king, a mournful queen, a gentle lady-in-waiting, an austere learned bishop, a faithful son, a clever jester, a rollicking band of mummers. Each pupil had made his own mask after very thorough study of the character that he had chosen. Knowing his character well enabled each student to interpret that character when he put on his mask, and for the time of the play, each student sought to become that character, king, queen, bishop, or mummer. The problem for each actor was that of bringing his movements and gestures into harmony with his mask. The king’s movements should be no less dignified and stately than his mask suggested. The unhappy queen must express the sadness of her mask by her drooping head and shoulders and by her impassive hands. Her mask was so modeled that when lifted, it suggested a smile. This expression was required when she lifted her head in joy at her son’s return.

The lady-in-waiting used pantomime to interpret her gentleness and modesty and the music which accompanied her XIIIth Century song. This song, sung off stage by one of the chorus, was singularly appropriate to the pensive quality of her mask.

The jester used pantomime in his dance. His inspiration for his poses came from the illustrations in old manuscripts and reproductions of old manuscripts. He sketches these, and then, assisted by a teacher who understood folk dancing, he worked out every step and pose to the music of this, his song:

What can the mask, the age-old form of entertainment, give us to-day? It is so far from mere representation that it allows us to escape from realism and to enter freely into the world of fine and subtle character interpretation. It is a form of entertainment that lends itself to humor, to dignity, and to beauty, and enlists the finest creative effort.