After the Conquest, all the Spanish dominions in the New World were divided under two governments, one of which was subject to the Viceroy of Mexico and the other to the Viceroy of Peru. As representatives of His Catholic Majesty, and directly appointed by him, the viceroys were chosen from the noblest families of Spain, especially distinguished for their services to the Church and the army. These proud grandees established their court in the colonial capitals on a scale of magnificence hardly excelled by that of their royal master; and the City of the Kings grew even to rival Madrid in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a metropolis of Spanish fashion and culture.

But the period immediately following the Conquest gave little promise of peace and prosperity for the colony of Peru. Revolution and anarchy prevailed even after the ignoble strife between the Pizarros and the Almagros was ended by the tragic death of the Conqueror and the execution of the younger Almagro. The firm authority of Governor Vaca de Castro sufficed to maintain order and tranquillity as long as he remained in the country, but with the arrival of his successor, the first viceroy, a storm of revolt broke over the colony with such tumultuous force that it threatened to overthrow permanently the authority of the Spanish king in his richest and most valued possession.

Blasco Nuñez de Vela, the first viceroy of Peru, who was appointed to succeed Vaca de Castro in 1544, is described as a brave, honorable, and devout man, but arrogant and imperious, utterly incapable of understanding and dealing with the turbulent spirit of the adventurers, in whom ambition, avarice, and jealousy were the ruling passions, fostered by the peculiar circumstances which had governed Peru ever since the capture of Atahuallpa. It was especially unfortunate that a man of the temperament and prejudices of the new viceroy should have been chosen to effect a change in existing conditions, requiring the most judicious and delicate management.

The harsh treatment to which the Indians were subjected under the Conquerors was brought to the attention of the King of Spain by a Dominican friar, Las Casas,—whose benevolent labors gained for him the title of “Protector of the Indians,”—in a remarkable document, containing such an appalling record of the wickedness practised against these helpless wards of the Crown that the king, deeply impressed, called a council to devise means of ameliorating their condition. As a result, the Viceroy Blasco Nuñez de Vela was the bearer of strict orders from Spain to abolish the system of encomiendas, by which the Indians had been made ostensibly the protégés but really the slaves of the Conquerors, not only their lands but their persons being appropriated as the legitimate spoils of victory. It is true that, under the Incas, the people had possessed no freedom, but they had been given no tasks too heavy for their strength and they had been kindly treated and well provided with food and clothing; under their new masters they were both abused and neglected. The granaries which formerly were well filled after every harvest were allowed to become empty, because tillage was abandoned for the more profitable labor in the mines; and the llamas, whose wool furnished the Indian with clothing, were slaughtered so recklessly that, within four years, more of these animals perished than in four centuries under the Incas.

According to the royal decree, the viceroy was to declare the Indians vassals of the Crown, though the present encomenderos, or owners, were to retain their privileges, except in the case of public functionaries, ecclesiastics, religious corporations, all who, by cruelty and neglect, had shown themselves unworthy of the privilege, and all who were implicated in the crimes resulting from the quarrel between Pizarro and Almagro. On the death of the present proprietors, their Indians reverted to the Crown. The viceroy, although representing the supreme authority, was accompanied by a Real Audiencia consisting of four oidores, or judges, clothed with extensive powers both civil and criminal, the viceroy being president of their council. At the same time the Real Audiencia of Charcas was appointed to have jurisdiction in Alto Peru and its dependencies. It was largely owing to the differences which arose between Blasco Nuñez de Vela and the Real Audiencia of Lima that his mission was a failure.

The order abolishing encomiendas was received with demonstrations of discontent throughout the colony. Few of the Conquerors could hope to retain their Indians under the new law, and they were furious at what they considered an effort to despoil them of the fruits of their hard-earned victory. In the streets, plazas, and churches, indignant crowds gathered to protest against the decree, news of which reached Peru some months before the viceroy’s arrival. The governor, Vaca de Castro, succeeded in calming the turbulent leaders by explaining that it would be the wisest course to petition the Crown asking for the repeal of the law, and then patiently to await the arrival of the viceroy, who might be prevailed upon to delay action until the answer to their petition should be received from Spain. Vaca de Castro was not slow to recognize that the most powerful friend of the malcontents was Gonzalo Pizarro, at that time engaged in exploiting rich silver mines in Charcas (now Bolivia), to whom they had already appealed for protection; and in a diplomatic letter, he cautioned Pizarro not to be drawn into the revolt. By his judicious policy, public order was maintained and preparations were made to welcome the viceroy with the imposing ceremony due to the highest representative of His Catholic Majesty.

The innate love of pomp and etiquette, characteristic of the Latin race, was displayed in all its attractiveness on such occasions as the reception of a viceroy; and during the entire period of colonial rule the arrival of these dignitaries was marked by grand festivities. Blasco Nuñez de Vela entered Lima in magnificent state, under a canopy of crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Spain, and supported on poles of solid silver, which were carried by officials of the municipality, dressed in crimson satin robes that sparkled with jewels. The brilliant procession was met three leagues from the capital by the Bishop of Cuzco, Vaca de Castro, and the principal cavaliers of Lima, and on crossing the Rimac River was joined by the Bishop of Quito, the ecclesiastical council and remaining clergy, while at the entrance to the city the municipal corporation awaited the illustrious guest. An imposing pageant was presented as the viceroy, preceded by a cavalier in full armor bearing the mace of authority, and attended by a handsome retinue, passed under the triumphal arch at the city gates and proceeded to the Cathedral, along streets strewn with flowers, while the church bells chimed a joyous welcome and bands of music made a gay accompaniment. At the Cathedral Te Deum was sung, after which the procession moved on to the Palace, where the new viceroy took the oath of office. He inspired confidence by announcing that he would await the arrival of the Oidores and the installation of the Real Audiencia before proceeding with the question of the new ordinance.

When the Oidores entered Lima bearing the royal seal, the city was again the scene of a grand and imposing display. By order of the king, the royal seal was received with as much ceremony as attended a visit of his majesty to the cities of his kingdom. It was placed in a box covered with cloth of gold, and was borne by a magnificent charger, richly caparisoned and led by one of the city aldermen in gala dress, while four other officials in robes of crimson velvet carried above the royal insignia the canopy of state embroidered with the arms of Spain.

The Real Audiencia was duly installed, and everything went well in the beginning under the newly established authority, the council having decided to suspend the ordinance against encomiendas until word should arrive from Spain in answer to the petition for its repeal; except that immediate enforcement was made in the case of public functionaries. But, unfortunately, the viceroy and the Real Audiencia did not long agree on the policy of government, and their quarrels weakened the prestige of the colonial authority at a time when all its strength was needed to cope with the disaffected soldiers of the Conquest, who bitterly resented the way in which they were thrust aside, now that their services were no longer of prime necessity to the Crown. Gonzalo Pizarro saw that he was to have no share in the dignities and honors of the colonial government, and he took advantage of the quarrel between the viceroy and the Real Audiencia to raise a large army and march on Lima, the oidores treacherously aiding him; the viceroy escaped to Tumbes and marched to Quito, whither Pizarro followed, engaging the royal army in a fierce battle near that city, during which the sovereign’s representative was defeated and slain. The victor was then lord of Peru, and more independent of the royal authority than his illustrious brother, the Conqueror himself, had ever been; he could raise a powerful army, could control a large squadron, had at his disposal a million dollars annually, and his friends guarded the national ports of entry. He was acclaimed the liberator of Peru and made a grand triumphal march into the capital, amid the vivas of the multitude, the chime of church bells, and the strains of martial music. His companions would have crowned him king; but whether Pizarro vacillated because he knew too well the fickle character of his enthusiastic supporters, or whether the moment did not seem opportune for such a step, he never assumed the purple robes of royalty, though his authority was as absolute as that of a king.

When the tidings reached Spain that the viceroy had been killed on the battlefield and that Gonzalo Pizarro reigned supreme in the colony, it caused the greatest consternation. A policy of conciliation was at once adopted, the law abolishing encomiendas was revoked, and a priest, Pedro Gasca, was appointed, not as viceroy, but as president of the Audiencia, with full power to represent the interests of the Crown in this difficult situation. Though an ecclesiastic, he was a brave soldier, added to which, he possessed a wonderful knowledge of human nature. By his tact he won many of Pizarro’s followers as soon as he landed at Tumbes, where he appeared clothed in the simple garb of a priest, with a breviary in his hand and the king’s pardon for all who would help him to establish peace in the country. His ranks were rapidly filled with deserters from Pizarro’s army as he marched across the mountains to meet the enemy, whom he encountered at Sacsahuaman, near Cuzco, and defeated. Pizarro was taken prisoner and executed. Gasca and his army then marched on to Lima, where the victor was received with even greater welcome and rejoicing than had greeted the victorious Pizarro. But it was not until some years later that the civil wars of the Conquerors finally came to an end. When Gasca returned to Spain, the second viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza, who had previously held the same high office in Mexico, was appointed to take charge of affairs in Peru. He died the following year and the government passed into the hands of the Real Audiencia, until, in 1555, the third viceroy was named, Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis de Cañete, under whose judicious and energetic rule the country was pacified and the authority of the Crown of Spain securely established. During the administration of this able statesman the son of the Inca Manco, whose following was great in the sierra and around Cuzco, made a formal abdication in favor of the King of Spain, receiving in return an annuity of twenty thousand ducats and other grants. It is related that when the Inca went to Lima to take the oath of allegiance he was carried from Cuzco to the capital in a litter, borne on the shoulders of his faithful subjects, and that he received the homage of his people wherever he stopped along the route; but the poverty of his own state and the empty-handed greeting of his unhappy compatriots made his progress a via dolorosa of poignant significance. He survived the ordeal only three years, which he passed in melancholy seclusion. The successor of the Marquis de Cañete, the Count de Nieva, occupied the viceregal office for only a short time; he was assassinated by order of a jealous husband. His post was taken by an ecclesiastic, Lope Garcia de Castro, who, as President of the Real Audiencia, continued the work of organizing the various political institutions of the colony. Peru was divided into provinces governed by corregidores; the towns peopled by Spaniards had cabildos, or municipal councils, with alcaldes, or mayors, and aldermen; the Indians were governed through their caciques, whose authority was, and still is, recognized by the central government.

One of the most illustrious of the viceroys, Don Francisco de Toledo, son of the Count of Oropesa, ruled Peru from 1567 to 1580, and his rigorous though well-ordered government marked a new epoch in the history of the colony. He began his administration by making a grand tour of all the provinces, during which he informed himself as to the needs of the people and the laws required for their well-being. Accompanied by the priests Ondegardo and Acosta, both of whom became celebrated afterward as historians of the Conquest, and having in his suite an oidor and several eminent personages of his court, the great viceroy made an imposing progress, being received everywhere with a welcome fit for a king. Though autocratic in his methods, he was eminently successful in reforming the political organization of the country; the corregidores, alcaldes, municipal police, in fact, every employee of the government, received positive instructions as to the duties of his office. He abolished encomiendas and obliged the Indians to live in communities, in each of which a church was built and priests were appointed to give the inhabitants religious instruction. Hundreds of these communities or reducciones were founded by the viceroy’s order, and built up with adobe houses, straight, though narrow, streets, cabildos, jails, hospitals, and a tract of land to be held as community property and worked on shares. The viceroy also established a regular system for the labor by mita, or rotation, required of the Indians, as well as for the tribute they were obliged to pay from the age of eighteen to fifty; more than twelve thousand mitayos, as the rotation laborers were called, were consigned to the silver mines of Potosi, then at the height of their production, and three thousand to the mines of quicksilver in Huancavelica, recently discovered. The Crown granted ownership of the mines to any Spaniards who would guarantee to work them and to deliver to the king one-fifth of all the ores extracted, and the mita was established in order to supply the necessary labor to work the mines; but so cruel was the oppression of the unhappy mitayos that, it is said, only a tenth of them ever returned to their homes, the rest dying a miserable death under the heavy tasks inflicted on them by greedy and inhuman masters. The viceroys were charged, on the one hand, to protect the Indians, and on the other to increase by all means the royal fifth from the mines; their office was no sinecure.

Not only did the Viceroy Toledo make laws to improve the Indian’s condition as far as was consistent with his duty to increase the “King’s fifth” to the utmost extent, but he also introduced reforms for the benefit of the Spanish colonists, establishing new schools, hospitals and other institutions. Social life began to show more distinctive features in the colonial capital than had been possible during the turbulent period immediately following the Conquest; the viceroy and ecclesiastics entertained with sumptuous festivals, and luxurious tastes and habits appeared among the nobility.

But the zeal of the viceroy went farther than the royal mandate intended, and over-reached itself in the execution of an Inca chief, who had assumed the masca paicha on the death of Inca Manco’s son, and who, according to the viceroy, constantly stimulated among the Indians a spirit of revolt, which might break out in open insurrection at any moment. The Inca had refused to consider any offer as the price of his claim to royalty, and the viceroy ordered him to be seized and put to death, in spite of the intercession of the bishop, the municipal council and other notable authorities of Cuzco. When Toledo returned to Spain, expecting the thanks of his sovereign for the services he had rendered the Crown in twelve years of arduous labor under the most adverse conditions, Philip II. greeted the aged cavalier coldly and requested him to withdraw from court, saying, “I did not send you to Peru to kill Kings, but to serve Kings.” Yet the Viceroy Toledo has been called the Solon of Peru, for the wisdom displayed in his government. During his administration, the colony made wonderful progress in wealth and culture, and the “royal fifth” was greater than it had ever been before. The Spanish monarchs apparently did not esteem very highly the sacrifices made by their discoverers, conquerors and pioneers of authority, who contributed to the sovereign possessions so handsomely, by the annexation of a continent, the gift of a houseful of gold, and the collection of “royal fifths” large enough to pay for building the Invincible Armada!

During the last year of the Viceroy Toledo’s rule, the port of Callao was sacked by the English corsair, Sir Francis Drake; and in order to avoid a repetition of such a catastrophe, the viceroy fitted out ships and sent his pilot Sarmiento to explore the Pacific Coast as far as the Strait of Magellan; Sarmiento recommended the fortification of the Strait and the establishment of a colony, for which preparations were being made at the time of Toledo’s return to Spain. Upon his departure, Don Martin Enriquez, a former viceroy of Mexico, was appointed to the vacant post, but he died after two years, the affairs of the colony being left in charge of the Real Audiencia of Lima for two years, when the Count del Villar Don Pardo was named viceroy.

The expedition which was sent out by Spain to form a colony on the shore of the Strait of Magellan, encountered a fierce tempest and only eighteen of the colonists survived. Their leader abandoned them to join the first pirate ships that appeared, which were those of Cavendish, following in the track of Drake, though with less success, as the Pacific ports were better protected than they had been eight years before. But if the pirates took little treasure, their departure was soon followed by the appearance of an epidemic of smallpox, which wrought terrible havoc in the colony. Whole families and even towns were destroyed by the plague, the fields remained uncultivated, the cattle neglected, even the mines were abandoned, the horrors of famine being added to those of the plague. This was in the year that witnessed the defeat of the “Invincible Armada,” a catastrophe that brought in its train many others for the proud monarch of Spain, whose power was no longer in the ascendant among the arbiters of European destiny, as it had been when he was crowned king. But, although Peru suffered much from the plague, the natural riches of the country were so abundant that the worst effects soon disappeared and prosperity reigned, more flourishing than ever. The viceroy did all in his power to promote the best interests of the colony, though his humane laws made him many enemies. He prohibited the forcing of mitayos to do excessive labor and to live in unhealthy localities, and forbade the treating of yanaconas (Indians who carried burdens) as slaves. During his administration the king accorded to graduates of the University of San Marcos in Lima honors and privileges equal to those of Salamanca, the great centre of learning in Spain.

The second Marquis de Cañete was appointed viceroy to succeed the Count del Villar in 1589. He came accompanied by his wife and a large suite of Spanish nobility. Their arrival marked a new era in the social life of the capital, which became brilliant with gay functions and the fashionable amusements of a court. The noble Marquis and his retinue were not only received with great ceremony under the crimson canopy of state, but the festivities attending their arrival were of the most elaborate description throughout the whole colony. The viceroy established a strict court etiquette, according to the historian Lorente, giving special instructions “that the women of the court should maintain the greatest reserve, not receiving attentions or seeking husbands, and should pay to the vicereine all the respect which court etiquette demanded.” In harmony with the viceregal grandeur, a royal chapel was erected in the palace and the religious ceremonies of the court were observed with imposing formality. The number of oidores was increased and the Real Audiencia assumed a greater importance, as the growing prosperity of the colony added to its responsibilities and influence.

On many occasions the viceroy reproved the arrogance of the clergy, his high office giving him the authority of vice-patron of the Church; and he never forgot that his first duty was to his sovereign, whose coat-of-arms he caused to be placed above the Archbishop’s on the façade of the seminary, in opposition to clerical opinion, while he did not hesitate to reprimand even the saintly Toribio for carrying complaints to Rome. But it was as his sovereign’s Superintendent of the Exchequer that the Marquis de Cañete made his government memorable. By every possible means the declining revenues of the mother country were reinforced from the resources of her colonial treasury, and the genius of the viceroy was displayed in the success with which he devised plans for collecting new taxes. Excise duties, the sale of deeds to illegal landholders and of privileges to office-seekers, extraordinary service from the Indians, the extension of tribute claims to include negroes and mulattoes, the income from legitimatizing mestizos, who paid large sums to enjoy the privileges of inheritance, the confiscation of the property of ecclesiastics who died intestate,—these were only a few of the sources from which the king’s coffers were filled. The proceeds of the mines of Huancavelica, which continued to increase in wealth at this time, yielded an important share of the accumulated wealth, and Castrovireina, named in honor of the vicereine, whose maiden name was Castro, became an important mining centre and a valuable source of revenue to Spain. The numerous exactions of the viceroy met with little opposition in an age when the most liberal governments did not hesitate to tax the subjects of the Crown to any extent required by the demands of the royal exchequer. The placing of restrictions on colonial commerce, from which foreigners, heretics and Spaniards without a license were altogether prohibited by the Spanish Crown, was not unusual in those days, and it was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century that any American colony under European sovereignty was permitted to open its ports to the commerce of the world. During the viceroyalty, Seville was the centre of the commercial monopoly, a royal board of trade regulating the sailings of ships, their condition, length of voyage and other matters relating to transportation.

The death of Philip II. of Spain, which occurred in 1598, left the fortunes of the rapidly declining monarchy in the hands of a weak and indolent prince, his son, Philip III., during whose reign the colonies obtained little protection from the Crown, but were continually called upon to contribute funds to its depleted treasury. The Marquis de Cañete was succeeded in the viceroyalty of Peru by Don Luis de Velasco, Marquis de las Salinas, during whose administration the colony enjoyed great prosperity and wealth through the increased production of the mines; a new theatre was built in Lima, the streets and plazas were improved and beautified and many handsome churches and other buildings were erected. The Count de Monterey, appointed viceroy on the retirement of Velasco, lived only a year after his arrival in Peru, and was succeeded by the Marquis de Montes Claros. Like many of his predecessors, this viceroy had previously held the same office in Mexico. He was one of the best financiers the Court of Spain had ever sent to the Indies, and so zealous were his labors in behalf of the royal exchequer that he was nicknamed the king’s steward. He went himself to visit the mines of Huancavelica, the product of which amounted to eight thousand two hundred quintals annually, and he sent mitayos to the gold mines of Carabaya and Zaruma and to the silver mines of Castrovireina, Vilcabamba, and Potosí. His successor, the Prince of Esquilache, who arrived in Lima with a numerous suite in 1615, devoted particular attention to the defense of the maritime ports, especially Callao, which he fortified with three cannons and a garrison of five hundred men. He also organized a navy. But he was a poet and a connoisseur rather than a statesman and his financial ability was not equal to the demands put upon it. Although the annual budget of the colony showed its receipts to be nearly three million ducats, hardly enough remained to meet current expenses after the “royal fifth,” amounting to a million ducats, had been sent to Spain and the cost of various improvements effected by the viceroy had been paid. His court was, however, distinguished for its brilliancy and culture, and he entertained many noted scientists and litterateurs. During his rule, several copies of celebrated paintings, and even some masterpieces, were purchased to adorn the churches of Peru.

The constant drain put on the resources of Peru by the Spanish kings during the entire period of the viceroyalty could have been supported only by a country of inexhaustible wealth and a people of long-suffering loyalty. Each successive viceroy came to his office with instructions to increase the king’s revenues, while the protection and aid from the mother country diminished as its demands grew more urgent and arrogant. Philip III. died in 1621 and Philip IV. ascended the throne, naming as viceroy of Peru the Marquis de Guadalcazar, a descendant of El Gran Capitan. During his administration and that of his successor, the Count de Chinchon, the demands of the court were so excessive that one wonders the colonists did not rebel against the extortions. The taxes were doubled, the sale of offices and privileges was increased, donations were solicited, duties were placed on vicuña wool, salaries were reduced, expenditures curtailed, and all manners of means resorted to in order to raise the sum required by the King of Spain for his fruitless enterprises and his extravagant pastimes; for although new mines were discovered in Cerro de Pasco and Cailloma, Potosí and Huancavelica began to show symptoms of decline, owing to the primitive and wasteful mining system employed.

The name of the Count de Chinchon is associated with the important discovery of quinine. His countess, who suffered from malarial fever, was cured by using a remedy that one of the corregidores had received from the Indians, a preparation made from the bark of a tree, and now popularly known as Chinchona bark. It is said the Indians had known its merits from time immemorial. The Count de Chinchon returned to Spain in 1640, and the Marquis de Mancera, of the illustrious family of Toledo, occupied the throne of the viceroys in Lima for the nine years following, during which he gave to Peru the best squadron in the Pacific and protected Buenos Aires, Paraguay, and southern Chile from invasion by building strong fortifications and providing weapons of defence. His successor was the Count de Salvatierra, formerly viceroy of Mexico, during whose administration the capital was beautified by many improvements. The handsome bronze fountain which still adorns the plaza in front of the government palace was erected by his order. He died in Lima soon after the arrival of the viceroy named to succeed him, the Count de Alva. The funeral of the Count de Salvatierra was an occasion of magnificent ceremony, the widowed countess observing with great pomp and formality the strictest court etiquette of mourning.

The Count de Alva and his successor, the Count de Santisteban, gave especial attention to the reform of laws affecting the Indians employed in the mines. The discovery of new mines at Laicacota, in the province of Puno, which produced one hundred thousand dollars in one night, revived abuses that had been quelled in other districts, and resulted in terrible fighting and bloodshed. In the midst of these conditions news was received that Philip IV. was dead and that his son Charles II. had ascended the throne. A few months later the Count de Santisteban died and the pious Count de Lemos, who is said to have lacked only the frock to make him a perfect Jesuit, was appointed viceroy of Peru. He came, accompanied by his wife and two children, with a retinue worthy of one of the royal families of Europe, both the count and countess being descendants of Pope Alexander VI. When the viceroy made his official entry, the keys of the city were presented to him on a gold salver, and he received a gold-headed staff encrusted with diamonds, that cost five thousand dollars. The triumphal arch through which he passed was made entirely of silver plate, and the space beneath it was paved with five hundred and fifty bars of silver, worth more than a million dollars. During an absence of six months, which the count spent in Alto Peru, the countess ruled as vicereine, her sagacity and energy being called into requisition on more than one occasion during that time. The greatest labor of the viceroy was devoted to the interests of the Church, and the religious festivals held during his administration were of surpassing pomp and splendor. Not even the gorgeous display that attended a royal progress under the Inca dynasty rivalled in magnificence the processions of the Virgin in Lima, held by order of the Count de Lemos. His successor, the Count de Castellar, viceroy of Peru from 1674 to 1678, possessed little of the temperament of a religieux, though he was an experienced statesman and an able financier; during the four years of his government he secured for the treasury of Lima twelve million dollars, and sent seven million dollars to Spain.

As the wealth and importance of the viceroyalty increased, the Court of Spain sent representatives to the colonial capital whose rank and previous services to the Crown entitled them to the most exalted position in the realm, next to that of the sovereign himself; the salary of a viceroy was seventy thousand dollars, his official income being double that amount from various other sources. The Duke de la Palata and Prince of Masa, who succeeded the Count de Castellar, had held high offices of state for thirty years prior to his appointment as Viceroy of Peru. He belonged to the royal house of Navarre and had been a member of the council of regency during the minority of Charles II. of Spain. With such prestige and renown, it was to be expected that his reception in the colonial capital would be of the most magnificent description. The chronicles of the period state that the noble duke was welcomed with such pomp and splendor as his royal master might have envied, the street along which he was conducted to the palace being paved with ingots of silver, while the triumphal arch through which he made his entry to the city was supported on silver pillars. The robes of the high functionaries who received the viceroy and his suite sparkled with costly jewels, and in the Cathedral and the palace enough gold and silver were displayed to pave another calle. And all this wealth existed in spite of the millions sent annually to Spain, and the misfortunes the colony had suffered from time to time in consequence of interruptions in the working of the mines, epidemics, earthquakes, and attacks from filibustering expeditions, that increased as the precious galleons of Spain were more and more heavily laden with gold and silver to attract their cupidity.

The Duke de la Palata spent the first years of his viceroyalty in resisting the powerful attacks of a party of a thousand filibusters who arrived on the Pacific Coast with a fleet of ships under the command of a Flemish captain named Davis. The viceroy sent a squadron of six ships, provided with one hundred and sixteen cannons and abundant ammunition, to disperse them, and when their scattered forces formed in groups and sacked the ports of Guayaquil, Paita, Pisco, Arica, and others, the duke sent out additional ships, a squadron of volunteers formed of merchants and capitalists gave their aid to the royal authorities, and the enemy was completely vanquished and driven from the coast. In order to be secure against disasters from future attacks, a wall was built around the cities of Lima and Trujillo, by order of the viceroy. The wall of Lima covered about six miles in extent, and had five bastions, and six gates, the work having been completed in three years. In the year 1687 a disastrous earthquake visited Lima, causing the destruction of many edifices and the loss of some lives. The Cathedral was destroyed, and the damage to property was tremendous. But the city recuperated with astonishing rapidity and was soon as gay as ever.

The question of rebuilding the Cathedral led to a clash of opinion between the viceroy and the Archbishop of Lima, the latter refusing to employ any of his enormous revenues in the work. The viceroy had a powerful enemy in the archbishop, who had held the office of viceroy during the three years that elapsed between the departure of the Duke de Castellar and his own arrival, and the quarrels of these two great dignitaries furnished abundant material for scandal and gossip in the gay capital. Lorente, who has given a graphic and charming description of social life under the viceroys, relates several amusing incidents. On one occasion, during a great national fiesta, when the duke was witnessing the bull fight from the viceregal box, under the crimson canopy of state, it was called to his attention that the Archbishop of Lima sat under a crimson canopy also; the duke at once sent him word that that honor was exclusively reserved for the viceroy of His Catholic Majesty, and the archbishop was obliged to retire from the scene. The state coach, drawn by six horses, which presented an imposing spectacle of luxury in those days, was another object of envy to the eminent ecclesiastic, who realized that as vice-patron of the church his rival exerted an authority which otherwise could not have been claimed by the viceroy. But the archbishop possessed great power and used it effectively in thwarting the viceroy’s plans for various reforms, though the administration was marked by consistent and resolute efforts to improve the condition of the colony. The Real Audiencia was enabled to exercise its authority with greater freedom, and the entire country was brought under a more systematic order of government.

The death of Charles II. of Spain, which took place in 1700, was the occasion of impressive mourning ceremonies throughout the vast empire over which the House of Austria had maintained its sway for nearly two centuries. The Duke de la Palata had died ten years before at Panamá, where he was attacked with yellow fever while on his way to Spain, and his successor, the Count de la Monclova, a nephew of the Cardinal Portocarrero, had already won the clergy of the colony to his support and coöperation by his protection and liberal donations. He was greatly beloved and esteemed, and remained in Peru as viceroy after the fall of the Austrian dynasty and the accession of the House of Bourbon in the person of Philip V., grandson of Louis XIV. of France; his government was marked by tolerance and the encouragement of social and commercial development throughout the colony.

Five viceroys, two of whom were ecclesiastics, governed Peru during the reign of Philip V.; they made a determined fight against the evils of contraband trade, which had grown to enormous proportions, but their efforts met with little success. The Marquis de Torre-Tagle and Don Angel Calderon, two wealthy Limeños, fitted out warships at their own cost to fight the Dutch contrabandists, and took rich prizes; but although the viceroys punished with great severity all who were captured, the traffic seemed to increase rather than diminish. In the meantime, the mines continued to yield great treasure, four million dollars being coined annually. During the government of the Marquis de Villagarcia, who was viceroy from 1736 to 1745, the royal fifth was reduced to a tenth, and colonial commerce was stimulated by the service of registered vessels that sailed via Cape Horn. Many comforts and luxuries, which had previously been too expensive for any but the wealthiest colonists to afford, now appeared in the markets of Lima; the houses began to be better furnished, and the calèche,—a two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by one horse, on which the coachman rode,—gave place to the coach and pair. The viceroyalty of Santa Fé was separated from that of Peru in 1740.

Peru was enjoying the blessings of peace and progress under the rule of the Viceroy Velasco, Count de Superunda, when a terrible calamity befell the gay capital: its seaport, Callao, being completely destroyed, and Lima reduced to the most deplorable condition by an earthquake which occurred on the 28th of October, 1746. The palace, the university, the cathedral, the mint, and the municipal buildings, sixteen colleges, thirty-six convents, and seventy churches, as well as hospitals, and more than twelve thousand homes were destroyed in Lima; while Callao was totally submerged with its five thousand inhabitants. The historian of this dreadful catastrophe relates that the earth rocked and tossed like a ship in a storm. The clergy took advantage of the opportunity to preach against the worldliness and luxury of the pleasure-loving people of Lima; and for weeks society did penance for its sins by fastings and mortifications. Through the active energy of the viceroy, the capital was rapidly rebuilt, less than twelve years being required in the reconstruction of the Cathedral, which it had taken nearly a century to build originally. Callao was also rebuilt and the town of Bellavista, which lies between the capital and the port, was founded. The viceroy had the satisfaction of seeing Lima once more a gay and prosperous city, the centre of luxury and fashion, the metropolis toward which gravitated all the wealth of a colony whose resources were no longer confined to the product of its mines, but began to be derived from agriculture and other industries.

While the enthusiastic patriots of North America were planning a revolution that was to bring independence to the colonies of New England, and to encourage throughout all America that spirit of freedom which has since grown to dominate the western world, the viceroyalty of Peru was in the height of its power, under the government of Don Manuel Amat, who ruled from 1761 to 1775. A military commander of iron will and severe discipline, he reorganized the army, which consisted of one hundred thousand men, the navy and the police service of the colony, and was himself chief of a brilliant regiment composed of the highest nobles of his court. By his order, the Plaza de Acho was laid out and reserved for public amusements, such as bull fights, ball games, etc.; the beautiful Paseo de Aguas was also built during his administration and became the favorite promenade of fashionable society. It is said that the Paseo was constructed to please the Pompadour of his merry court, who was known in the scandals of the viceroyalty—and there were many—as La Perricholi.

It has been said that the first blow in the battle for the independence of the South American colonies was struck by the hand of the monarchy itself, when the order was given to expel the Jesuits from the Spanish possessions, in 1767. It was shortly after this event that the old-time enmity between Vascongado and Vicuña began to reappear in their descendants, the Spanish authorities and the Creole students of the University of San Francisco Javier,—years before the first patriots announced their campaign. According to some authorities, the revolution was fostered by the Jesuits, who resented as an injustice the edict issued against them, and helped to sow the first seeds of republicanism in the minds of the South American subjects of Spain. In Lima, the centre of colonial power, there was little more than a rumor of the discontent that had developed out of the quarrels between criollos (Spanish-Americans) and chapetones (Spaniards) in Potosí and Sucre; at the time of the Jesuits’ banishment, Lima was apparently happy in the enjoyment of peace and plenty. The capital was constantly becoming richer and more attractive with its brilliant court functions, its gay carnivals, its fashionable promenades, its theatre, balls and splendid religious festivities. In 1778, during the administration of the Viceroy Guirior, Amat’s successor, the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires was formed, embracing the former Audiencia of Charcas.

A final attempt was made in 1780, by the descendants of the Incas, to regain their lost empire. It was carefully planned, boldly initiated, and bravely carried forward, assuming formidable proportions under the leadership of an Indian cacique, who called himself Tupac Amaru, and claimed descent from the Inca Manco. Goaded to desperation on account of the iniquities committed against his people by the minor authorities, who could never be brought to justice, he determined to take the law in his own hands, and one night seized a ruthless offender, the corregidor of his community in the province of Cuzco, whom he overpowered and dragged to his house. After forcing the magistrate to issue orders that Indians and Spaniards should obey the orders of the Inca, he hanged the unfortunate official in the plaza and robbed his house, securing thirty thousand dollars, which he used to promote his campaign. He collected an army of sixty thousand followers, intending to march on Cuzco, seize the city and reëstablish the Inca empire; but his followers were undisciplined, his troops badly organized, and in the first encounter with the regiments of the colonial army he lost twenty thousand men. The Bishop of Cuzco threatened with excommunication all who remained in the rebel ranks, and many leading supporters withdrew, leaving Tupac Amaru to meet seventeen thousand drilled soldiers in a battle in which his ranks were thrown into utter confusion, and he was defeated and captured by the enemy. He was put to the torture of being fastened by his arms and legs to the saddle girths of four horses, which were then driven in opposite directions, tearing him limb from limb. Those of his followers who escaped continued to make sporadic attempts at revolt and were the first to join the ranks of the patriots when the war of Independence was launched. But none of the partisans of this brave Indian possessed his qualities of leadership and their fate is unknown.

The prosperity of Peru continued under the rule of the viceroys Teodoro de Croix and Francisco Gil de Lemos, though the influence of the French revolution was beginning to make itself felt in Venezuela, Alto Peru, and other districts remote from the capital. During De Croix’s administration, the viceroyalty was divided into seven intendencias: Trujillo, Lima, Huancavelica, Tarma, Huamanga, Cuzco, and Arequipa; and an Audiencia was established in Cuzco. The Count de Osorno became viceroy in 1796, and was succeeded four years later by the Marquis de Aviles, who devoted particular attention to the military and religious institutions of the country; during his time, Baron von Humboldt, the noted scientist, arrived in Lima, and was accorded a most hospitable welcome.

The immediate proximity of monarchical authority prevented the development of conspiracies in the capital in favor of independence; but in Cuzco, Moquegua, Tacna, Huánuco, and other provinces, patriotism, stimulated by the example of the French and the North American revolutionists, began to give demonstrations of its strength and purpose. With the retirement of the Marquis de Aviles in 1806, and the arrival of his successor, Don Fernando Abascal, the supremacy of the viceroyalty in Peru may be said to have begun to decline, the government of the succeeding representatives of the Crown of Spain being occupied rather in an effort to maintain their authority against the increasing and, finally, overwhelming force of the patriotic movement, than in public administration. The viceroy Abascal realized the importance of making concessions to the now thoroughly aroused spirit of liberty, and his government was marked by benevolence and conciliation. He founded colleges, repaired the city walls, built a pantheon, prohibited any further burials in the church vaults, and was zealous in the promotion of public enterprises. But the most liberal and devoted efforts could not stay the hand of destiny. The brilliant court of the viceroys was doomed to extinction, and the grandeur of colonial aristocracy was to give place to the simplicity of republican ideals.