If the Spanish-Americans have inherited from their European ancestors too much of the aristocratic pride and military arrogance that distinguished Peninsular crusaders, they have also fallen heir to the courtly grace and admirable savoir faire which made the Knights of Santiago and Alcantara famous among the first gentlemen of Europe four centuries ago, and which, descending to their children’s children, have become characteristic of the Spanish-speaking people all over the world. In America, and more particularly in Peru, the influence of New World conditions fostered a relaxation of austere exclusiveness and a softening of military severity; the lavish opulence that reigned in the viceroyalty, with its attendant pleasures, led colonial society to assume a gayety and freedom which would have been impossible in the atmosphere of rigorous etiquette that dominated Madrid, and Lima gradually became more renowned for its sociability than for the strictness of its court. Both influences may be seen, however, in the development of the Peruvian society of to-day, which is reserved and dignified in manner, clever, hospitable, and kind.

Although the national traits vary according to locality and inherited tendencies, the inhabitants of the coast possessing characteristics which are not so clearly defined in the people of the sierra, while these again differ in their customs from their neighbors of the Amazon valleys, yet, everywhere and at all times, the Peruvian’s Mi casa es á Và—“My house is yours”—is a spontaneous word of welcome. The Limeños, as natives of the capital are called, are noted for their esprit and imagination, and are especially gifted in the social qualities for which their ancestors were celebrated a hundred years ago; while they are, happily, outgrowing the heritage of less admirable tendencies, bequeathed by the luxurious and extravagant society of the viceregal court. The progress of the nation within the past half a century shows that the race is strong, full of purpose, and capable of working out a noble destiny. During the first twenty years of the republic, the social life of Lima did not change greatly from what it had been in the pleasure-loving court of the viceroyalty. Visitors to Peru in those early times tell us that the propensity for card playing was one of the greatest evils the new government had to combat, and that ministers, envoys, and officers of all ranks fell under its spell. It is said that the celebrated Baquijano once had to send for a bullock cart to take home his winnings, amounting to more than thirty thousand dollars. The chroniclers do not state whether the game resembled our modern poker or our bridge whist! Those were the days when General San Martin gave his assemblies at the palace once a week, and balls were held at which round dances began to take the place of the minuet, the mariquita, and the fandango. As the influence of the new régime made itself felt everywhere, political and literary coteries lessened the number of card parties and music and dancing became more popular in the houses of the leading people.

It was not so easy to reform the custom, popular among the ladies of those days, of wearing the saya y manto, a coquettish feminine dress of the viceregal period, which had been under the ban of devout churchmen for two hundred years before the independence. Its evil influence seems to have been of a subtle kind, to judge from the conflicting impressions it made on different travellers. It is described by one who was in Lima a century ago and saw the ladies of that day arrayed in all their charming grace and armed with their irresistible coquetries, as “a very handsome and genteel costume;” though not all foreigners described it in such moderate and conventional terms. The saya was a skirt of velvet, satin, or stuff, of black, purple, pale blue, or other colors, sometimes striped; it was pleated in small folds and clung to the figure in such a way as to display the contour to the best advantage. Some of these sayas were very narrow at the bottom so that the wearer was obliged to take short steps in walking, a custom that made the Limeña’s tiny feet look still smaller as she tripped daintily along the street; the bottom of her saya was often trimmed with lace, fringe, pearls, or artificial flowers; the smaller her feet, the richer and more elaborate was the garniture that bordered her saya. With this garment went the manto, a hood of thin black silk drawn around the waist and then carried over the head and held together in front so as to hide all the face except one eye. It is said that in this costume a lady could pass her most intimate friend without being recognized, and mystery enveloped the identity of every feminine figure seen on the street in those days. A dainty lace handkerchief, a rosary in the hand, a glimpse of satin shoes and silk stockings, and an abundance of jewels completed the toilette. The manto was undoubtedly derived from the Moors, and must have appeared a curious headdress when seen for the first time. The Limeñas wore it in the most fascinating style, and the one eye that was visible between its folds was made to do double duty as a weapon of war or love. The secret of enhancing its potent charm was as complicated as are the mysteries of the tocador in modern Spanish boudoirs. It was customary to darken the brows and heighten the brilliancy of the eyes with cosmetics when Nature proved unkind or too sparing of her favors; though it was the exception, as it is to-day, when a Limeña’s eyes lacked beauty and brilliancy. Gradually the saya y manto gave place to the very full skirt and mantilla,—similar to the costume still worn to church service. A long war was waged against the manto by the authorities of the viceroyalty, who claimed that it fostered intrigue and a thousand dangerous proclivities; but the wearers insisted that it protected their complexion from the sun, and was necessary for their personal comfort as well as convenience. As early as 1609 an attempt was made to prohibit the saya y manto in Lima, but not until it declined in fashion, more than two hundred years later, did the Lima belles abandon this mode for a more modern costume. It is said that the saya y manto played a very important part in the cause of independence, and that the wearers of this effective disguise carried messages, assisted the patriots when imprisonment or hardship overtook them, and rendered a great many valuable services to the cause of liberty.

Many of the leading families of Peru are descendants of Spanish nobles who came over with the viceroys, and a few trace their ancestry from the conquerors; but the best fibre of the nation is derived from the enterprising colonists who established commerce in the country during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and by their industry and practical energy laid the foundations for a better development of the mercantile interests of Peru. They helped to overcome the traditional feeling that it was beneath the dignity of a Spaniard to be employed otherwise than as a statesman, a soldier, a scholar, or a priest; and among the descendants of Spanish grandees are to be found to-day many active and progressive bankers, merchants, constructing engineers, and “captains of industry,” who are contributing to make Peru rich and prosperous among the nations of the modern world. This spirit is more generally seen in the capital and the seaports than in the cities of the interior, though it is gradually extending to the remotest hamlets.

In Lima and Callao, increased attention is paid to business every year, and the days of fiesta, which once numbered almost as many as those devoted to work, are being constantly reduced, even the holidays that remain, though none the less thoroughly enjoyed, having lost many colonial features. Carnival, the gayest holiday festival of the year, is now quite a subdued celebration compared with what it was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when “Lima was no more than a city of Andalusia transplanted to the New World, with all the extravagances of the romantic, artistic, and audacious spirit of old Seville, Malaga, and Cordova.” The freedom of the Carnival season then pervaded all ranks of society, and for three days no one thought of anything but pleasure. As late as the end of the eighteenth century, the mask and domino were costumes de rigueur for Carnival, and fancy dress balls were given in many private residences. The Viceroy Amat made the Carnival season one of unprecedented gayety, with bull fights, promenades in the Avenida de Acho, and a bal masque at night. One can imagine the charm of these festivities in the delightful climate of Lima, with the soft music of the guitar and the mandolin vibrating on the night air under a dozen balconies, and the dance of the mariquita and the fandango keeping time to a clicking of castanets in hundreds of gayly decorated salas. The saya y manto played its part, and many a jealous episode followed the rivalry among young Limeños for the favor of a glance from the one eye that looked out tantalizingly through a tapada. The custom of deluging the passer-by with the contents of a water-jug was formerly more general than it is to-day, when the little red globo of scented water is the chief weapon of Carnival sport. The globo, when filled, is about one-fourth the size of a toy balloon, and is made of the same material, breaking easily and splashing its contents over the victim at whom it is thrown. Though Carnival is still a merry holiday, modern municipal ordinances are annually restricting its more extravagant features.

The national holiday, July 28th, the anniversary of Peruvian independence, is celebrated with patriotic processions, speeches, and entertainments; it is the opening day of Congress, and is always an occasion of general festivity. The day begins, as do all public holidays in Peru, with religious service in the Cathedral. There are eighteen public holidays, two of which, Independence Day and the feast day of Our Lady of Mercy, the patron saint of the arms of Peru, are recognized as national. The feast of Our Lady of Mercy is held on the 24th of September, and is celebrated with imposing church ceremonies and a magnificent procession, in which the high church dignitaries, with the Archbishop of Lima at their head, are present. The various religious orders, including the Franciscan, Dominican, Augustinian, and others, form part of the procession, and the army appears in gala uniform and full force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The church service, attended by the president of the republic and his cabinet, is one of especial solemnity, and all Lima does homage to the occasion. The streets and plazas are thronged by sunrise, an eager crowd assembling in front of the government palace to see the president pass in his handsome state coach drawn by eight horses and guided by a smart coachman and grooms. Another annual feast day of importance, at least in the capital, is the 30th of August, the day set apart for the celebration in honor of Santa Rosa de Lima, the patron saint of Lima, the Philippines, and all America. The birthday of St. Joseph (San José), the patron of the republic of Peru, is celebrated on the 19th of March. The remaining holidays are the same as those observed in all Catholic countries.

The hospitality of the Peruvians is especially seen in their homes, where the stranger finds them thoughtful, courteous, and invariably polite and attentive. One has here a good opportunity to learn the family customs, which are simple and cordial. The houses of Peru are generally of one or two stories, and are built around a court or patio, which is usually beautified with plants and flowers and often paved with ornamental tiles, making it a delightfully cool and comfortable place for the family reunion in the evening. It takes the place of the verandah, so popular in North America. The daily routine of a Peruvian family does not differ greatly from that of the Latin people in all countries, where the desayuno, or early breakfast, consists of a cup of coffee and a roll, taken in one’s room, sometimes as early as six o’clock, the midday meal, or breakfast proper, being much more elaborate than the same meal in England or the United States, while the dinner, between six and eight in the evening, is more or less the same as in all countries. Criollo cooking, as the preparation of food according to Spanish-American taste is called, has given place in many houses to the French cuisine, though one may still enjoy the peppery dishes of native origin in the sierra, and a few choice specialties of traditional excellence retain their hold on the national palate. The after-dinner coffee is usually taken in the patio in summer and in the drawing-room during the season of the garúa. In the evening, music and dancing are favorite amusements, the piano, guitar, mandolin, or other musical instruments being among the necessities of every well-regulated home. The foreigner is at once impressed by the refinement and grace which distinguish the people in their home life, and which are evidences of the long inheritance of a cultured race. Travellers have extolled the people of Lima for their intelligence, imagination, and charming hospitality; the Arequipeños are eulogized by Flammarion, who says: “Arequipa is the most agreeable place of abode in South America, not only for the suavity of its climate but also because of the hospitable customs of its people.” The cordiality of the families of Cuzco is no less abundantly proved by those who have enjoyed a visit to this historic city, in which it is the custom to extend charming hospitality to the stranger. It is the same in the other cities of the republic, where a kindly welcome awaits the visitor and every courtesy is shown to the traveller.

The increasing population of foreigners in Peru, and the custom among well-to-do Peruvians of sending their children to Europe and the United States to complete their education has led to the introduction of more cosmopolitan social customs than formerly existed, and this is seen especially in the outdoor sports and amusements. Although the bull fight and the Spanish game of pelota still attract a large number of spectators, the lawn tennis games are also popular; football and baseball claim a great many enthusiastic Peruvian players, and regattas are always attended by immense crowds of people. The horse races have become a regular feature of sport, and at the Cancha, or race track, on “Derby Day,” the best Lima society may be seen in its most fashionable attire, which is usually of Parisian style and is often imported direct from the French capital. The new president-elect of Peru, Don Augusto Leguia, has a stock farm near the capital, on which some of the best thoroughbreds of South America have been reared, and his horses are usually among the favorite winners on Derby Day.

Though most of the private fortunes of Limeños were swept away at the time of the war with Chile, when the destruction of property was great in Lima and its suburbs, as well as on the haciendas of the wealthy planters, yet the present generation has recovered a great deal of the former prosperity, and at important social functions, such as the balls given within the past two years to the Duke of the Abruzzi and Prince Udine, of Italy, to General Saenz Peña of Argentina, and to Hon. Elihu Root of the United States, the costumes and jewels displayed are of the most costly and elegant description. The ladies of Lima have always been famous for their winning and gracious manners, and every writer on Peru has paid a compliment to their tiny feet, in which one traveller finds a sufficient excuse for the Q. b. s. p. (“who kisses your feet”) with which letters to ladies are usually finished in Spanish, instead of the very matter-of-fact “Yours sincerely” that closes an epistle in English. The Peruvian hostess entertains with the grâce du salon which is hers by inheritance, and her tertulias are altogether charming. But she does not confine her energies to social duties alone, her charities occupying a great deal of attention. Three years ago, a number of ladies of the best society of Lima formed a club, called the “Centro Social,” for the purpose of establishing institutes in which the daughters of gentlewomen without fortune could secure, free of charge, the necessary training to fit them for earning their living. It was proposed to teach stenography, bookkeeping, telegraphy, photography, drawing, and other branches, which would provide the knowledge required by girls in search of remunerative employment. This effort shows the spirit of practical benevolence which animates the Limeña in her charitable work. It is a long step toward relieving the pressure of modern needs when a race, whose women have been so closely guarded as have those of Spanish ancestry, can throw off the prejudices of traditional custom and meet a present demand with a present remedy. The adverse fortunes of war in the southern part of the United States forced many gently born women to enter the business world. At first they stayed at home and earned a pittance bending over the embroidery frame, but modern machinery made even this a hopeless effort in the face of too strong competition, and they turned their attention to more lucrative posts. While war continues to destroy the natural breadwinners of society and to deplete the home treasury, it is useless to preach about “woman’s sphere.”

While the descendants of the Spaniards in Peru have been the directing power in the affairs of the republic, as they were in the viceroyalty, yet the mestizo and the Indian have not remained ciphers in the social development of the nation. The descendants of the Inca princes were educated in colonial days in colleges especially established for that purpose, and under the republic all classes of Indians have received the benefits of instruction; but it is not to be expected that the descendants of the Inca’s humble subjects can show the same degree of progress as those whose ancestors were of the family of Manco-Ccapac, and had the mental training of royal princes for long generations. The latter are intelligent, very proud, and have shown themselves worthy of the white man’s admiration on many occasions. General Andrés Santa Cruz was of the Inca’s race, as were many others who contributed to the triumph of republican principles in the great war of independence. In the sierra, many families of Inca descent, whose sons have filled posts of importance in the republic, have comfortable homes and broad acres rich in harvests. The race, as a whole, however, shows no more initiative to-day than at the time of the conquest; under the present government, the Indian is generally contented and obedient, peacefully cultivating the fields as he did under the Inca’s rule. His songs, called tristes by his Spanish compatriots, are most melancholy and seem to express the sadness of ages. Indeed, the Indian himself looks like a survival of antiquity, out of place in a modern world. The mestizos are apparently a much happier people than the Indians; they are good artisans and are successful in trade. They attend faithfully to religious duties, and throng the processions of the Virgin, and other feasts in celebration of the saints. These processions take place in every city and town of the republic, and though they have lost much of the sumptuous magnificence that characterized all religious festivals under the viceroyalty, they are still conducted with great ceremony.

Both the religious and the educational institutions of the country have contributed to impress on the social culture of the Peruvians a distinct individuality; added to these influences, within recent years an independent factor has been introduced, in the form of clubs and societies of a literary and scientific character, which encourage the development of independent thought among the people. Associations of professional men meet to discuss the latest discoveries in the science with which their labor is identified, and delegates are sent to the principal gatherings of a scientific character which are held annually in all parts of the world. The artisans also have their clubs and take an increasing interest in the progress of industrial labor in their own and other countries. In some of these clubs classes are held for the purpose of education.

In order to know and appreciate the social life of a nation it is necessary to become acquainted with its various public institutions, not only the clubs and societies that represent the ambitions of a few intellectual citizens, but its libraries and schools, the productions in literature and art effected by its people, and the popular sentiment as interpreted through the press. In the literature and the art of a nation are expressed its deepest feeling and highest aspirations.