Although Peru lies entirely within the tropics, and close to the equator, yet its climate cannot be called equatorial, nor is the vegetation exclusively that of the Torrid Zone. Latitude has comparatively little influence in determining its character, the chief index to which is to be found in the remarkable physical features of this extensive territory, one of the largest and richest of the South American countries. The temperature here varies from equatorial heat to arctic cold, and the products of all zones flourish within its boundaries. Lofty peaks, clad in perpetual snow, look down from their frozen summits on scenes of perennial spring-time; and, from these lesser heights, the view extends over valleys and forests where summer reigns throughout the year and Nature is riotous in her extravagances.

According to the best Peruvian authority, the republic extends from north latitude 1° 29′ to south latitude 19° 12′ 30″; and from meridian 61° 54′ 45″ to 81° 18′ 39″ longitude west of Greenwich, covering an area of about one million seven hundred thousand square kilometres. Its boundaries are marked on the north by Ecuador and Colombia; on the east by Brazil and Bolivia; on the south by Chile; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The settlement of boundary disputes and the definite establishment of limits between the different countries of South America are problems that have long taxed the diplomacy of these nations and proved a persistent drawback to their unity. By mutual agreement, it is understood that the basis on which the disputed frontiers are to be defined rests on the division of the territory made by Spain during the colonial government and recognized at the time of the Independence. The delays that have occurred in fixing these limits have made the task more delicate with the passing of time, owing to the increased value of the lands in dispute, the growing population and other circumstances; but, fortunately, the vexed problem is rapidly nearing a final solution, most of the rival claims having been already submitted to arbitration, and many of them satisfactorily settled. The frontiers indicated in the accompanying map represent the claims of Peru; though the limits between this country and its northern and eastern neighbors, as here shown, may be modified by the decisions that are to result from the arbitration of friendly nations, chosen by mutual agreement to mark the dividing line; on the south, the Camarones River forms the boundary between Peru and Chile, though the latter occupies the provinces of Tacna and Arica pending the plebiscite agreed upon in the treaty of Ancón.

Between the rainless region of the coast and the dripping forests of the Montaña, the country is crossed by three mountain ranges that run parallel through a part of their course, sending out transverse chains at intervals, or joining together in great nudos, “knots,” that form high plateaus in the midst of lofty peaks, covered with perpetual snow. By this mountain system, Peru is divided into three distinct regions: the coast, the sierra, and the Montaña, or wooded plains. The coast region extends from the sea inland to the Cordilleras, reaching an altitude of from three thousand to four thousand feet; the sierra attains a height varying from ten thousand to eighteen thousand feet, the high altitude, above the limit of vegetation being known as the puna; the Montaña covers nearly two-thirds of the total area of Peru, stretching from the eastern slope of the Andes to the frontiers of Brazil and Bolivia.

The coast zone embraces a strip of land about fifteen hundred miles in length, having an average width of from fifty to one hundred miles. From the Gulf of Guayaquil, which forms its northern boundary, to the extreme southern limit of this region the coast line is marked by a succession of bare cliffs and shifting sandhills; though even this dreary prospect has its peculiar charm when seen in the lights and shadows of dawn, or in the still more marvellous colors of the sunset. One is reminded of the glow that spreads over Alpine summits as the great orb vanishes; in the fading light, the waters of the Pacific are as purple at the foot of these rosy rocks as are the deep ravines below the Jungfrau. On this strip of coast land, rain falls so seldom and in such insignificant quantities as to be hardly worthy of mention. The only moisture which the soil receives is derived from the rivers that traverse it on their way to the sea from the Cordilleras, and the mists that prevail during the winter season from May to August, caused by the southeast winds.

The lack of rain on the Peruvian coast is chiefly due to two important circumstances, which explain why neither the winds from the Pacific nor those from the Atlantic discharge any moisture on this sandy soil. The prevailing winds from the Pacific blow from the southeast and carry very little moisture, owing to their courses being parallel with that of the Humboldt current,—a submarine stream from the antarctic, which follows the line of the Peruvian coast throughout its entire length and has a temperature seven degrees colder than the ocean; it is a hundred and fifty miles wide, with a velocity of about a mile an hour. Besides the southeast wind, a west wind blows across the Pacific, bringing plenty of rainclouds; but it is checked by the stronger southeast current as it approaches the coast, and its benefits are lost. The trade winds that cross the Amazon plain from the Atlantic discharge a great amount of rain in their course, but when they reach the high altitudes of the Andean range, their vapor is condensed and falls in the form of snow, no moisture remaining with which to water the narrow strip that lies between the Cordilleras and the Pacific. The sea breeze, known as the virazón, is strongest along the southern part of the coast, where, during the winter months, it sometimes causes inconvenience in the various harbors, on account of the heavy surf it creates. As a rule, the Peruvian coast presents few difficulties to navigation. It is seldom visited by storms, and there are no rocks, reefs, or shoals, to give the mariner anxiety. A remarkable feature of the ocean in this region is the appearance, during the winter season, of a current which is supposed to be a prolongation of the equatorial stream, and which flows in an opposite direction to the Humboldt current; it is known as the niño.

Only two seasons are perceptible in the coast region of Peru, the winter months, from June to November, being cooler than those of summer, from December to May. Fogs are frequent between December and April, though they seldom last throughout the day. The heat is never intense, owing to the influence of the Humboldt current, which modifies the effect of the sun’s rays. Although apparently barren throughout a large extent of its territory, the coast zone is really rich in production and supports a large and flourishing population. In the subsoil of its arid plains, valuable deposits of petroleum have been found; its uninviting deserts contain saline beds of great commercial importance; and throughout its length appear at intervals beautiful and fertile valleys, watered by abundant streams and yielding enormous harvests of sugar-cane, cotton, rice, and all kinds of fruits. The rivers of the coast, though numerous, are of limited extent and volume, nearly all of them having their sources on the Pacific Slope of the Andes and flowing directly across the sandy strip of coast land to the ocean. During the summer, when abundant rains fall in the upper ravines of the Cordilleras, the coast streams carry plenty of water to irrigate the valleys; a few of them are navigable for a short distance, but only for small craft. The valleys drained by these rivers—about fifty in all—are like ribbons of green crossing the brown sands of the coast; their existence is an indication of the wealth which might be secured throughout the entire region by artificial irrigation.

The coast line of Peru presents few indentations. Its principal bays are: Tumbes, in the extreme north, an inlet from the Gulf of Guayaquil; Paita and Sechura on the coast of Piura; Chimbote and Samanco near the northern border of Ancash Department, both large and beautiful bays; Salinas and Callao, on the Lima coast; Pisco, San Nicolás, and the famous Bay of Independencia, where San Martin landed the Liberating Army, on the coast of Ica; and the picturesque bay of Arica. A few notable capes and promontories mark the sea line, Cape Blanco being the first point at which the coast curves southward after leaving the Gulf of Guayaquil; and Point Parinas, the most westerly promontory of South America. Near the coast, and presenting the same barren aspect, are several groups of islands belonging to Peru, the most important being Lobos de Afuera, Lobos de Adentro, and Guañape, in the north, and the Chincha Islands a few miles from the port of Pisco, south of Callao, noted for their rich deposits of guano. San Lorenzo Island, which lies six miles to the southwest of Callao, serves as a protection to the chief harbor of Peru. They are all desert rocks, though many interesting prehistoric relics have been found on San Lorenzo which indicate that this island was at one time the abode of a considerable population, apparently of the same race as the pre-Incaic inhabitants of the southern coast district.

Leaving the coast for the sierra, one is impressed by the rapid change of scene and the beauty of the landscape that unfolds to view in varying aspects as the lower levels are left behind and the towering majesty of the Cordilleras appears in closer proximity. The great Andean system not only divides the region of the coast from that of the Amazon plain, but, by its peculiar formation, gives to this part of Peru certain features not to be found in any other country. Where the Andes mountains cross the border between Peru and Bolivia, they consist of three high ranges, viz., the Occidental and Oriental Cordilleras and an intermediary or central chain. Near Lake Titicaca the Cordilleras join to form the Nudo of Vilcanota; and about three degrees farther north, following a northwesterly direction, they again unite in the Nudo of Cerro de Pasco. The average height of the great ranges, from the Bolivian border as far north as seven degrees south latitude, is from thirteen thousand to seventeen thousand feet above sea level, a few peaks rising above twenty thousand feet; then the altitude diminishes to an average of from nine thousand to ten thousand feet, with frequent openings or passes not more than seven thousand feet above sea level. Farther north, crossing the border of Ecuador, the altitude is again increased to the limit of perpetual snow. Between the mountain ranges extends a high uneven plateau, broken by deep ravines and gorges, where transverse chains have destroyed the regularity of the majestic Cordilleras; in this inter-Andean region are also fertile valleys marking the courses of streams which have their origin in the Nudos of Vilcanota or Cerro de Pasco, and which flow between the ranges, until an opening occurs to give them passage to the plains of the mighty Amazon.

The abundance of moisture carried by the winds from the Atlantic, and deposited on the Andean summits in the form of snow, accounts for the existence of several lakes at great altitudes in this region; in most cases, an opening in the surrounding mountains has caused an overflow into lower levels, thus originating the greatest river system of South America. There are evidences in the plains and valleys of the high sierras that these were at one time lakes, their waters having disappeared in consequence of the gradual wearing away of the opening and the levelling of the bed of the lake by sediments deposited in the course of ages. A few of these inter-Andean lakes still remain. The famous Lake Titicaca, which lies partly in Peruvian and partly in Bolivian territory, and which covers an area of more than eight thousand square kilometres, at an altitude of twelve thousand five hundred feet above sea level, is one of the most remarkable bodies of water in the world; it is the highest navigable lake on the globe, and is celebrated in South American tradition as the cradle of the Inca dynasty. Steam navigation was established on this lake in 1867, between the Peruvian port of Puno, at the Titicaca terminus of the Southern railway from Mollendo, and the Bolivian port of Guaqui, at the Titicaca terminus of the La Paz railway. The trip across the lake by steamer takes from twelve to fifteen hours, during which one may enjoy a most unusual experience, not only “on a sea above the clouds” but at times in view of a whole range of resplendent snow summits, glistening under a sky of marvellous blue. Many rivers and streams flow into Lake Titicaca, though only one, the Desaguadero, has its source in that lake. From the Nudo of Vilcanota at the north flow the rivers Suchis, Huancane, and Ramis, with their affluents; from the west, having their origin in the high sierra between Arequipa and Puno, descend the Cabanillas and Lampa, confluents of the Coata; and from the south, the Blanco, Juli, and smaller streams empty into the great lake. Besides Titicaca, Peru has several lakes of less extensive area, the most noted being the Laguna de Junin, famous as the site of the historic victory won by the patriot army over the colonial forces of Spain; Rimachuma in the Department of Loreto, and Arapa in Puno, are of considerable importance.

The Laguna of Santa Ana, in the Department of Huánuco, though only six square miles in circumference, is worthy of mention as the source of the Marañon, one of the parent streams of the great Amazon River. It is situated in the Nudo of Cerro de Pasco, a few leagues northwest of Junin. The Ucayali and the Madeira—the latter with its tributaries, the Beni and the Madre de Dios, being the longest of all the Amazon’s tributaries—have their source in the Nudo of Vilcanota, and, like the Marañon, have an inter-Andean course for a considerable distance before entering the vast Amazon plain. On the route from Puno to Cuzco, at a point called La Raya, the mountain summits surround a small basin, in the midst of which is a little pond; from this insignificant beginning, two streams take their course in opposite directions,—the Ramis, which flows into Lake Titicaca, and the Vilcanota, afterward the Urubamba, which, after forming a junction with the Apurimac, another important river of this region, becomes the chief affluent of the Ucayali. The Urubamba and the Apurimac run parallel along the separate valleys formed between the Occidental and Oriental ranges by the intermediary chain which accompanies them from the Nudo of Vilcanota northward, until the three Cordilleras join again in the Nudo of Cerro de Pasco. Separating north of Cerro de Pasco, these three great ranges form the valleys of the Marañon and the Huallaga. The rapids, or “pongos,” which interrupt navigation on nearly all the Amazon tributaries at some point of their course, usually indicate a break in the enclosing Andean walls, simultaneous with a change of their direction, the river resisting an effort to turn its channel, and plunging through the narrow gorge that affords it escape.

The rivers which have their source in Vilcanota or Cerro de Pasco are no more than little rivulets of melted snow as they first appear in the crevices of the high sierra; but they are fed by a thousand streams along their course, and increase rapidly in volume as they flow toward the plain, following the channel cut for them in the course of ages, now carved so deep that, in some places, it lies at the bottom of a chasm thousands of feet below the level of the bordering hills and plains. It is only after leaving the region of the sierra that these rivers are navigable, though they are capable of supplying unlimited motive power for manufacturing and other purposes. Many of them are famous in history and a few have claims to particular interest through their association with the legends and traditions of the Incas. The Apurimac, across which Maita-Ccapac swung the first American suspension bridge, has its source in the Laguna de Vilafro, fourteen thousand feet above sea level, in the Department of Arequipa. It receives many affluents, and, as it descends into the lower valleys, drains a country rich in agriculture, one of the most productive regions of Peru. It was on the border of this river that General Sucre and his army were encamped by Bolivar’s orders, when the news of the royalist army’s approach led to the rapid change of plans which resulted in General Sucre’s becoming the hero of Ayacucho. To-day, the beautiful valleys of this region blossom with the fruits of peaceful industry, and thriving towns adorn its landscapes. Abancay, the picturesque capital of the Department of Apurimac, is surrounded by sugar plantations, and the campiña is dotted with mulberry trees, the silkworm industry being a profitable source of revenue.

The Urubamba River, like the Apurimac, flows through a fertile valley, crossing the Department of Cuzco in a northwesterly course from the border of Puno to the southern limit of Loreto, where it forms a confluence with the Tambo—as the Apurimac is called after receiving its last tributary, the Perené,—and enters the broad channel of the Ucayali. The Urubamba has a number of tributaries, the most important of which is the Paucartambo; along the courses of these rivers are fields of sugar-cane, and in the lower valleys grow cacao and all tropical fruits.

The Marañon, and its tributary, the Huallaga, flowing northward from the Nudo of Cerro de Pasco, water a region of surpassing fertility, in the valleys of which are to be seen every variety of agricultural product. The Marañon receives a great many tributaries from the Occidental range as it flows northward across the Department of Huánuco, turning northwest between Loreto and Ancash, and traversing the Department of La Libertad. After dividing the Departments of Cajamarca and Amazonas for some distance, it makes a curve to the northeast and, turning sharply in an easterly direction, pursues a tortuous course until joined by the Ucayali, to form the Amazon. In changing its direction from northwest to east, the Marañon passes the “pongo,” or falls, of Manserriche, the last and most important of a series of rapids which mark an effort to free its current from the confining Andes. From the north, the Marañon receives the Santiago, Morona, Pastaza, Tigre, and other tributaries, while from the south, its chief affluent is the Huallaga. The greatest variety of scenery and climate marks its course, which begins on the high puna, in the midst of snowy peaks, and descends between mountain slopes, on which cattle and sheep graze in perennial pastures, through valleys dotted with orchards, and fertile levels where cotton, tobacco, and sugar-cane grow, to the region of the Montaña, fruitful in cacao, coca, and other products of a tropical zone. In the valleys drained by the tributaries of the Marañon are situated some of the most prosperous farms and plantations of Peru, though the wealth of this region has never been exploited on a scale of sufficient importance to show what it is capable of producing. Cajamarca, the capital of the Department of the same name, and Chachapoyas, the capital of the Department of Amazonas, are the most important industrial centres of this inter-Andean valley.

Cajamarca, the historic city of the Conquest, celebrated as the site of the capture and execution of Atahuallpa, lies in an oval plain surrounded by mountains and traversed by the Camarca River, a branch of the Marañon. Interesting ruins remain to give an idea of the great structures built by the Incas or their predecessors, and the hot springs are as efficacious to-day as they were when the last unhappy monarch of Cuzco found them a source of royal comfort and pleasure. The valley of Cajamarca is well cultivated, the inhabitants being industrious and thrifty.

Leaving the inter-Andean region for the Montaña, it is interesting to observe the contrast in scenery and natural conditions. In the Andean valleys, the traveller who departs from the line of the railway must journey in a coach or on muleback; in the Montaña, the small steamer or the canoe is the accustomed means of travel through the forest, the waterways of this region affording transportation throughout their entire length. Among the most important rivers having their source in the Montaña—generally in a ledge branching off from the foothills of the Andes, are the Yavary, Yuruá, Purús, and some tributaries of the Madeira River. The great waterways, with their affluents, form a network of communication in the Amazon country, and contribute greatly to the development of the rich resources of this vast zone, which is essentially tropical, yielding the valuable products of the rubber tree, the dyewoods, medicinal herbs and hardwoods of commerce, and other precious gifts of nature.

With such a great variety of physical conditions as those which govern Peru, it is not surprising that its climate should present many contrasts, and some unique features. In the coast region, owing to the proximity of the snow-clad Andes and the cold Humboldt current, the average temperature is lower than that of any other country extending over the same degrees of latitude; in winter, the thermometer registers an average temperature of fifteen degrees centigrade, and in summer the average is twenty-six degrees centigrade, the hottest days marking no higher than thirty degrees in the shade. The mildness of the climate makes this region of Peru an agreeable place of residence even to those accustomed to the bracing air of the temperate zone; it is not so liable to the epidemics of a tropical climate as are less favored countries in the same latitude; and, with proper sanitation and the adoption of modern hygienic measures, there is no reason why the Peruvian coast should not be a paradise of health and longevity.

The climate of the sierra varies with the location and altitude of the inter-Andean valleys and the plateaus that separate them. In the lower slopes of the Cordilleras, the heat is greater than on the tablelands, which have a temperate climate; while on the lofty, snow-clad summits of the range, the cold is as intense as in the arctic regions. The seasons of the sierra are divided differently from those of the coast; the rainy season, from November to May, being called winter, and the dry season, though colder, being known as summer. The average temperature, within the populated region of the sierra, is ten degrees centigrade during the day and five degrees at night, the absence of the sun making a great difference in the atmosphere. The pure air of the plateaus is very beneficial to consumptives, and Jauja, Tarma, Huancayo, and other towns of the sierra have become famous as health resorts.

In the Montaña, the two seasons correspond to those of the sierra, the wet season being from November to May, called winter, and the dry and cooler season called summer. As the region of the Montaña slopes away from the Cordilleras, its higher levels present the evidences of a tropical zone in the exuberance of their vegetation, though the climate is as cool and mild as that of southern Europe. Foreigners who live in this region pronounce it healthful and delightful, as malaria is unknown, and illness of any kind is a rare visitor. As one descends to the lower Amazon plain, the heat becomes intense in places, though it is generally modified by the daily showers and the cooling effect of the trade winds. Taken as a whole, the climate of Peru may be considered benign and healthful, and favorable to the acclimation of foreigners, the conditions being such that every stranger may find, somewhere in the country, the same climate as in his native land, or a better one.

The extensive territory of Peru, well provided by nature to meet the needs of a great population, has at present between four and five million inhabitants. The coast region supports one-fourth of this population, having an average of 4.53 inhabitants to each square kilometre; the sierra has about two-thirds of the entire population, with an average of 5.32 to each square kilometre: and the Montaña, with less than half a million inhabitants in its vast forests and plains, shows only one inhabitant to every three kilometres. It is in this region that the greatest opportunities are offered for colonization. Of the total population, the official statistics give fifteen per cent to those of European descent; fifty per cent are of Peruvian (Indian) origin; two per cent are African, one per cent is Asiatic, and the remainder are of mixed races, chiefly European and Indian. In the predominance of the descendants of the Incas’ gentle and obedient subjects is explained the peaceable and tractable character of the masses, whose faults are rather those of indolence than of evil intention. The governing class is chiefly of Spanish origin; and, notwithstanding all that has been written to the contrary, their Latin inheritance has peculiarly fitted them to be the rulers of this refined race. The Spanish conquerors treated the Indians with great cruelty, it is true, and reduced their number by forcing them to unaccustomed tasks; but the Indians of North America hardly fared better under the zeal and energy of the Puritan colonist, who instead of making them his servants, drove them away from their homes, took possession of their country, and gave himself no responsibility as to their future in this world,—though earnestly seeking to teach them how to find a haven in the next.

Peru could very well support many times its present population, which is only equal to that of Holland, though the Department of Lima alone covers more territory than the entire Dutch republic. The Department of Arequipa, equal to Switzerland in extent, and resembling it in mountainous character, though having the advantage of several good seaports, has only one-tenth of the population of that inland country. England covers less area than the Department of Cuzco, yet has a hundred times the population. One of the reasons for the limited European population to be found in South American countries is their remoteness from the great highways of travel, which have hitherto been between countries of the northern hemisphere. But the twentieth century finds the extension of international relations making rapid advances south of the equator; and new steamship lines are being constantly inaugurated to connect the ports of Europe and North America with those of the trans-equatorial countries. Nearly all these countries have good seaports and railway facilities for transportation to the interior. When the Panamá Canal is opened, Peru will be placed within easy communication with New York and Europe; in the meantime, the service is being improved so that it will soon be possible to make the trip from the Peruvian port of Callao to New York in ten days.

In a general description of the country, it is not possible to give details regarding the many interesting features of coast, sierra, and Montaña; the coast is closely related to its highland neighbor and may even dispute boundaries, where the mountains crowd near to the sea; the sierra and the Montaña encroach on each other’s domain in the equatorial region, offshoots of the great Andean chain extending far into the Amazon valley, while the virgin forest climbs high up the sides of the Cordillera’s slope. Many of the coast departments extend inland to the great range, and, as in Ancash, have their chief city in the sierra. Not far from Huaraz, the capital of Ancash, rises the lofty peak of Huascarán or Huascán, said to be one of the highest of the Western range, and in the coast departments of Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna are several extinct volcanoes, the summits of which are covered with perpetual snow.

Owing to the fact that the various altitudes of Peru have a modifying effect on the natural conditions of soil and climate, even though the latitude is equatorial, the same kinds of products are found in nearly all the departments, though each of the three natural divisions—the coast, the sierra, and the Montaña—has also its own peculiar vegetation, not to be found in the other regions. Along the coast are fisheries of growing importance; the Peruvian government has engaged the services of an expert from the United States to study the conditions most favorable to pisciculture and the results are most satisfactory. According to a recent report sent to the Minister of Fomento in reference to the fisheries of Lobos de Afuera and Lobos de Tierra, there is an abundance of fish off the shores of these islands. The peje-aguja, “needle fish,” measures as much as two and a half feet in length; the anchoveta, peje-blanco, bonito, cabrilla, castañeta, charlo, morena (three feet long), sardine and tiburon are among the largest varieties, besides which there are innumerable small fry. These islands have long been frequented by fishermen from the mainland, the inhabitants of Eten, Pacasmayo, and other coast towns having established a considerable trade in this product. In their primitive-looking boats, called balsas, the fishermen carry provisions and other necessary articles for a month’s sojourn on the islands, where they settle themselves until they are ready to make the return voyage. As soon as a fish is caught it is killed by a blow on the head, and each day’s “catch” is salted after the fishing is over. Nets are rarely used in these waters, the hook and line being usually employed.

But although the islands of Peru yield an abundance of fish, it is as the centre of the guano industry that they are chiefly known. The history of the Chincha Islands, of Lobos de Afuera and Lobos de Tierra is especially interesting as it relates to the pelican’s haunts and the wealth stored on their desert rocks by millions of these birds.