Although Viracocha was one of the greatest monarchs of Cuzco, it was his son who brought the Inca dynasty to such a high degree of prestige and power that the great empire gained unprecedented wealth and territory. Pachacutec has been called the second Manco-Ccapac, and his name signifies “he who creates the world anew,” showing what an exalted place he occupied among the Inca emperors in the annals of his country. He was an accomplished diplomatist as well as a skilful warrior, a statesman of far-seeing judgment, and a philosopher. It was as a diplomatist that he gained the coöperation and loyal service of the curacas of newly conquered provinces, and by his skill as a warrior that his armies were so well organized and disciplined as to win victories in all the campaigns which the heir-apparent led against the tribes of the coast, carrying his conquests from Pisco, Nasca, Ica, and Pachacámac to the realm of the hitherto much dreaded and altogether invincible Grand Chimu. The name of the young prince, Tupac-Yupanqui, is particularly associated with the conquest of Cajamarca; and the return of the hero to Cuzco at the close of that campaign was made the occasion of a national celebration throughout the empire.

It must have been an imposing and magnificent spectacle when the Emperor Pachacutec met the victorious prince outside of the capital on his return from Cajamarca, and entered the city with the royal heir, the latter “borne in a gold litter on the shoulders of conquered chiefs and preceded by troops of newly gained vassals, who sang the glories of the prince, with the triumphant ‘Haylli!’ to thrill the heart of the multitude and carry them beyond bounds as they caught its victorious note.” The pathway of the prince was covered with flowers, and crossed at short intervals by triumphal arches. The curacas marched at the head of processions from the different provinces, each in their local costumes, dancing and singing songs of victory; these were followed by the legions of the army, who filled the air with cheers for their general. The nobility came next in line, splendid in court dress and brilliant ornaments; and, lastly, the royal litter of the emperor side by side with that of the prince, gave to the pageant its culminating glory. The procession wound its way through the streets to the Temple of the Sun, where, with impressive ceremonies, thanks were rendered to the deity whose protection they believed had won the great victory.

The Inca’s armies entered the valleys of Pachacámac, Rimac, and Chancay late in the fourteenth century, and effected the allegiance of all that territory with little resistance; though it was an alliance rather than a conquest which the monarch of Cuzco proposed to the powerful ruler of the Yungas, as the people of that region were called. According to their treaty, the lord of Pachacámac was to keep his dominions, though under the authority of the imperial government; and the religion of Pachacámac was to be protected, on condition that the people also worshipped the Sun. It was after this alliance that the Temple of the Sun and the Convent of the Vestal Virgins were erected near the ancient edifice dedicated to the Creator. Later, the chiefs of this part of the coast region united their forces with the armies of Cuzco and marched against the Grand Chimu, glad to render assistance in an effort to crush their common enemy. The trained legions of Cuzco suffered greatly at first, on account of the intense heat, and their general was forced to send to his father for reinforcements; the resistance was stronger and more resolute than that of any enemy the Incas had hitherto encountered; but repeated reinforcements arrived, and the archers, lancers, and catapult regiments made havoc in the Chimu’s dominions, which was intensified when the enemy turned the course of the rivers that flowed from the sierra, to drain their plantations, and famine added to the horrors of combat. Capitulations were made, the Inca permitting the Grand Chimu to govern his dominions, as had been done in the treaty of Pachacámac, and exacting only that the people should render homage to the Inca and worship the Sun. A general edict was issued by Pachacutec at this time which proved one of the most powerful agencies in the consolidation of his great empire; it was decreed that all vassals of the realm should learn Quichua, and teachers were appointed in every province to see that the language was taught and used throughout the country. All government officials were obliged to know the national idiom and no one was permitted to occupy a place of authority or to have dignities or seignory conferred upon him if he could not speak it. Every soldier of the army, which grew to number two hundred thousand men, spoke this language.

During the reign of Pachacutec, the government of the empire was established on a firmer basis than ever, and legislation, though in reality only an expression of the supreme will of the Inca (there was no word for “law,” which was rendered apupsimi, “the word of the chief”), made clear to every subject what his duties were to his sovereign and to the state. The Inca Pachacutec ordered that all children over five years of age should have some employment appropriate to their age and their father’s profession. The blind, mute, and lame were given light work, and even the most ignorant and weak-minded were employed, as a safeguard against laziness. On the other hand, he set aside three days in each month for fiestas, and harvest time was a season of general rejoicing. The lands of the empire were all owned by the Inca and agriculture was the chief occupation of his subjects; the Inca himself turned the first furrow every year, with a golden plough. The products of the harvest were divided into three parts; first, the Inca’s share was set aside to sustain the splendor of the throne and tomeet public necessities; then the share for the Sun was devoted to the needs of the church, the priests and all who served in the temples; and finally the communities received their share, out of which each tiller of the soil was provided with what he needed. Private property did not exist, and no one had any individual rights whatever; on the other hand, every subject was given food and clothing and a house in which to live, though only as the Inca’s dependent ward, who could never hope to outgrow his “minority.” It is not surprising that patience and obedience became the predominating virtues of the race! The system of administration, which made it possible for the Inca to maintain his absolute authority over such a vast territory and population is explained partly in the frequent transporting of mitimaes, or colonists, from their native province to another, which prevented concerted plans for revolt, and partly in the division of the population into decades, or groups of ten, five of these groups constituting a body of fifty, two of these bodies making a centenary, and so on, the whole empire being governed in provinces of ten thousand inhabitants; each of the subdivisions had an officer in authority who was answerable to the chief officer of the larger group of which his division formed a part, until the supreme authority was reached. As may be supposed, the larger divisions were under the direction and control of the nobles, the provinces of ten thousand being governed by the Inca nobility, who had command over the curacas and other territorial officers of his district.

The subjects of the Inca could not even choose their life partners; matrimony was obligatory and, as its results affected the well-being of the state, the Inca maintained the right to govern in this as in all other matters. In the royal family, the ceremony was performed by the emperor himself, though in marriages of lesser importance his officers discharged this formality, appointing a day for a general ceremony, when all the young men of from twenty to twenty-five and girls of from eighteen to twenty presented themselves in a row, the men in front; after the wedding, the young people took possession of the houses which their community was obliged to build for them, the furniture being supplied by their family. No one could marry outside of his or her parcialidad, or township, and, as it was obligatory to wear the dress of one’s forefathers and not to move from any town to another without leave from the authorities, it may readily be understood that the costumes worn in the various sections of Peru were as distinctive of class and locality as is the Scotch tartan. The custom still remains in the sierra, and the effect is most picturesque.

Throughout the long reign of sixty years which is given by the historians to Pachacutec, his sagacity and benevolence were seen in every branch of his administration. He died at the age of eighty years, and left the throne to Tupac-Yupanqui, the tenth emperor of Cuzco, who made the conquest of Chile as far south as the Maule River, and spent three years visiting his kingdom. The royal progress was of the most magnificent description; the litter of the great monarch was resplendant with gold and precious jewels, displaying in its adornment the sacred symbols of sun worship, as it was borne on the shoulders of the Inca’s proudest nobles. With a gorgeous retinue the great lord of Cuzco proceeded along the highway, which was lined throughout the route by adoring subjects, who strewed the pathway of their deity-king with flowers and sang songs in his praise; when the transcendent glory of the Son of the Sun was revealed to them for a brief moment, as the curtains of the litter were raised and the royal countenance became visible, their acclamations were joyous and fervent beyond words. According to Sarmiento, one of the early historians, the royal guard and retinue that accompanied the Incas always made a splendid spectacle. Close to the litter of the emperor, and forming a brilliant and impenetrable guard, were his majesty’s halberdiers and archers on each side, five thousand soldiers in front, with catapults (weapons used with unfailing effect by the armies of Cuzco), and as many lancers with their captains behind, while heralds hurried back and forth, clearing the way and announcing the approach of the mighty lord. The people were glad to see their monarch, not only to witness the glory and splendor in which he appeared, but also because it was the royal custom, observed by Manco-Ccapac and all his successors, for the Inca to take this opportunity of hearing his people’s grievances and regulating matters referred to his decision by the provincial tribunals. Wherever he halted grand fiestas were celebrated in his honor; and so well stocked with provisions were the royal tambos, that all the Inca’s suite, as well as his troops, could be served with their accustomed food and all comforts. The Inca was kept in constant communication with Cuzco—no matter how far away from the capital his travels might lead him—by his chasquis, or postboys. On all the principal roads leading from Cuzco post offices were established, not like the modern repositories of letters, but small huts, in which a number of chasquis were stationed to receive and carry forward messages of the government. These posts were only a few miles apart, and the chasquis, who were chosen for their fleetness as runners as well as for their fidelity, were relieved by a perfect system of relays, so that it was possible for messages to be carried fifty leagues in a day. The chasquis were of great value in times of war, as may readily be seen, and they were also pressed into the domestic service of the royal palace, being employed to bring fruits, game, and (we are seriously informed by the historian) even fish, from the tropical coast region, for the imperial table.

Tupac-Yupanqui is named by some authorities as the successor of Inca Yupanqui, to whom they give all the glory of the long and brilliant reign which others credit to Tupac-Yupanqui. On the other hand, many historians say that Inca Yupanqui’s reign was brief and uneventful, except for his campaigns, undertaken to subdue the Mojos of the region of the Beni and the Chiriguanas of the Bolivian Chaco. He failed in both enterprises and then turned his armies toward Quito, though with little better success. Tupac-Yupanqui had a young son, however, who was destined to bring the power and prestige of the Children of the Sun to the very zenith of glory. This prince, whose name was Huayna-Ccapac, took command of the imperial forces in the later years of his father’s life and marched against the king of Quito, whom he defeated, gaining possession of his kingdom. Alas, the conquest of Quito, the most brilliant victory yet won by the Children of the Sun, proved to be “the beginning of the end,” the source of the disunion of the great Inca empire, a calamity which contributed in an important degree to make it possible for a small group of invaders to accomplish the downfall of one of the most powerful monarchies that ever developed among a primitive people!

The historical records of the reign of Huayna-Ccapac are generally regarded as reliable, since he died only a few years before the arrival of the Spaniards, and the events of his government were still fresh in the minds of his people. Not only did this monarch add to the number of magnificent temples and palaces erected throughout the empire, but he built a new highway from Cuzco to Quito and completed the great road from the capital to Chile. The famous tradition of Ollantaytambo is said to have its origin in the rebellion of one of the nobles of the court of Huayna-Ccapac, named Ollanta, who resisted the power of the Inca in his stronghold until finally conquered by the superior strength of the emperor’s forces. The ruins of Ollantaytambo, forty miles north of Cuzco, are among the most imposing in Peru, though according to some archæologists the edifice was built in pre-Incaic times, and was only restored and embellished by the Incas. The same is said of nearly all the great temples, except Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun, in Cuzco, and a few others, though it is not certain in whose reign Coricancha was built; probably the work of construction extended over several reigns. Huayna-Ccapac is said to have had a strong leaning toward philosophy, and, like some of his predecessors, he gave numerous proverbs and mottoes to his people, which the early historians were able to get from the quipucamayos. He was the first to declare that he believed in the existence of a higher power than the Sun, and the reason he gave for this disloyalty to the deity of the Incas is very interesting. It is related that he first gave expression to his new creed during a visit to his subjects of Collasuyo. He had gone with his court to spend some time on the sacred island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca, where he is said to have devoted much attention to plans of reform, in religion, industries, and other features of administration. From this point he had visited the monuments of Tiahuanaco, and was celebrating the great annual feast of Raymi at Chuquiapu (La Paz, Bolivia). His uncle, the chief priest of the temple, observed that the Inca spent much time gazing at the sun, and said to him, “Thou knowest, Inca, that it is not permitted to look so freely at our father, the Sun, and thou art causing a grand scandal in the court and among all thy subjects assembled to worship our supreme lord.” In return, the emperor asked: “Is there anyone in the empire who could oblige me to make a long journey? Is there anyone who would dare to disobey me if I ordered him to journey to Chile?” “No,” was the answer of the priest; “No one would dare to give orders to his sovereign, nor to disobey him.” “Then I tell you,” replied the Inca, “that our father, the Sun, has a ruler greater and more powerful than himself; for the sun never rests on the journey which he makes every day, and the supreme lord no doubt does things leisurely and halts when it pleases him, even though he has no need of repose.”

The feast of Raymi was the most brilliant and popular of all the national celebrations. It usually took place at Cuzco, as the permanent residence of the Inca was in that city, and was held at the period of the summer solstice, which, south of the equator, occurs in December. Three other fiestas of especial importance were held during the year to celebrate the solstices of June, March, and September, though none of these equalled in elaborate ceremony and display the “Ccapac-Raymi.” For three days previous to the 21st of December there was a general fast, and on the morning of that day the Inca, in company with his family and the nobles of his court, attired in gala dress and wearing their most gorgeous adornments, awaited the appearance of the rising sun. A multitude filled the plaza, presenting in the variety of their dress and ornaments,—as they represented the different tribes gathered under the standard of the rainbow in many campaigns,—the aspect of an assembly gathered from the four corners of the globe. As the sun rose, smiling on the sacred city in benediction, the crowd broke forth in a shout of praise and thanksgiving; while joyous songs and the melody of music from a thousand curious instruments throbbed on the air. Dr. Lorente in describing this feast says: “The Inca, filling two glasses with chicha, (a fermented liquor of maize, the popular drink of the Indians in the sierra to-day as it was hundreds of years ago,) offered them to his divine father, the Sun, and then poured the contents of the glass he held in his right hand into a golden receptacle, which by a secret channel flowed into the Temple of the Sun. The contents of the other glass were first sipped by the Inca, who passed it to his nobles that they might do the same.” After this libation, all repaired to the temple, which they entered barefooted, the multitude being required to remove their sandals two hundred steps from the sacred portal, which they might not enter. After the Inca’s invocation to the Sun, the procession made its way to the plaza where the sacrificial offerings of llamas were made and the feasting began in all its intensity. It lasted for a week, during which the chicha jars—huge earthenware vessels—were increased and refilled constantly, and dancing was kept up day and night without ceasing. The feast of the harvest, held the 21st of March, was regarded with great reverence, as it was then the fire was drawn from the Sun’s rays to light the sacred flame for the altar; the rays were focussed on a metallic mirror which the Inca wore in a bracelet on his right arm, and by this means a small piece of cotton was ignited, the fire being then guarded by the Virgins of the Sun until the feast of the ensuing year.

Under the influence of a common religion, a common language, and a common government the consolidation of the great Inca empire was effected, and it must be conceded that the benevolent character of the despotism which its sovereigns exercised was the saving feature of a system which must seem, to the freedom-loving spirit of the twentieth century, the worst species of barbarism. Yet for a primitive people, who shall say that the government of Cuzco did not accomplish more toward civilizing them than a less autocratic but more oppressive system would have done? In the course of time, might not Inca philosophers, such as Pachacutec and Huayna-Ccapac, more advanced in their ideas by social evolution, gradually extend more privileges to their subjects and lift them up to a higher level? The empire had apparently reached its farthest boundaries with the conquests of Chile and Quito, and the period of insurrection and insubordination had passed, as a result of wise measures taken to bind all the Inca’s subjects together in a common interest, through the practice of a common religion and the exclusive use of a common language. It was the most promising moment in the development of the race.

The story of Huayna-Ccapac’s fear and foreboding when the news was carried to him in his palace on the island of Lake Titicaca that “white and bearded men” had been seen in the region of the coast, and of his retirement to Quito to pass the remainder of his days in the society of his favorite Pacha, the mother of Atahuallpa, is well known. Unfortunately, the poetical romance of Atahuallpa’s birth in the conquered city of his mother’s people, and of his winning the proud heart of his father, so that the rightful heir to the throne of Cuzco was relegated to a second place in the Inca’s affections, has been pronounced a fable; because Atahuallpa was twelve years old when Huayna-Ccapac conquered Quito. But, on the other hand, there is no proof that Huayna-Ccapac did not invade Quito previous to its conquest. At any rate, the story is bien trouvée. The question of disposing of his empire vexed the great Inca, who wished to provide well for his favorite son, but was bound to recognize the exalted rights of the Coya’s heir, Huascar, at whose birth the national rejoicings had been greater than on the natal day of any other prince of Cuzco. The legend of Huascar’s golden chain, which was long enough to encircle the plaza of Cuzco three times, is still repeated, and expeditions still seek it in the various places where it is said to have been concealed on the approach of the Spaniards. Finally the throne of Cuzco was given to Huascar, and that of Quito to Atahuallpa. Neither was satisfied, and their quarrels and combats resulted in dividing the empire under rival powers at the supreme moment when unity was its only hope for salvation.