1. A hundred thousand years ago the Red Sea may have been a long, isolated lake filling up a great Rift Valley, and the south-western extremity of Arabia have been joined across the narrow straits of Bab-al-Mandib to Somaliland. There is an Arab tradition that in the remote past these straits were formed by a series of earthquakes and land-slides. But if this were the case why is not the west of Arabia, in fertile, well-watered regions, more “African” in its mammalian, bird, and insect fauna? Arabia is a great enigma still in these questions of geographical distribution. It would be convenient to regard it as the evolutionary area of the negro, if, for example, there were any evidence of a positive character—as there is in southern Persia—to show that it was ever the home of a negro race in ancient times. But there is no such evidence, and its present negro or negroid population only dates from the trade in negro slaves which began about the commencement of the Christian era, and flourished exceedingly after the eruption of Islam.

“Lemuria”—the hypothetical isthmus which once united Madagascar and East Africa with India and Ceylon—could not have been the negro’s birth-place, as some have suggested, inasmuch as it ceased to exist in the early Tertiaries, long before Man had been evolved.

2. They can be gleaned—most of them—from the recent writings of Dr Arthur Keith, and Mr W. L. H. Duckworth, and are to some extent summarized in the preliminary chapter of the present writer’s book on The Negro in the New World.

3. These will be found described in Mr W. L. H. Duckworth’s Morphology and Anatomy, and also in studies of the Bushmen and Hottentots recently published by Dr Péringuey of the State Library and Museum, Capetown. It is true that the researches of German and Italian anthropologists have shown that the hypertrophy of the external genitalia characteristic of the Bushwoman, together with steatopygy, not only occur amongst the East African negroes, but even in Somaliland, Abyssinia and Egypt; but this is only an additional piece of evidence showing the previous existence of the Bushman in these regions, perhaps also in Southern Europe.

4. The name is Dutch and means “shore-runners,” there being a legend amongst the Boers derived from the Hottentots that the present race of Bushmen was preceded by a vanished type of humanity which derived its living from the shellfish on the sea-shore.

5. It is more convenient to refer to this speech family and racial type as “Fula,” but the actual name applied by the “Ful-be” people to their language is “Fulful-de.”

6. It is more correct to spell this tribal name Tawareq, the plural of Tarqi, “a raider.” But the modern pronunciation of this Arab term (it is unknown to the Berbers themselves) is “Tuareg.” Wherever in this book q is used in transliterating African words it stands for the faucal “k” of the Arabs and other Semites, a guttural which is more commonly pronounced as a g in North Africa.

7. In which region they may have been preceded by Bushmen, and by a more generalized, Tasmanian-like type of man, similar to the Galley-Hill man who inhabited Kent and Central Europe approximately 100,000 years ago.

8. So called by Professor W. F. Petrie and others because the type is illustrated in the many portraits of the Pharaohs of Egyptian dynasties.

9. To be followed, with no return to sovereigns of real Egyptian race, by Arabs, Turks, Circassians, Albanians, Macedonians, Armenians, French, and British.

10. Some writers reserve “Hamite” and “Hamitic” for the general name of the language family which includes the Libyan and the eastern Hamitic tongues, and employ Kushite as a special designation for the great eastern branch of Hamitic speech-forms which extends its range through North-east Africa from Egypt to the Equator. The main groups of these eastern Hamitic or Kushite languages are the Beja or Bisharin of the Red Sea north-west coast and the country between the Nile and Suakin; the Saho of the Abyssinian coast-lands; the Afar-Danakil-Somali group; the Agau-Bilin of the Abyssinian highlands; the Gala, stretching from central Abyssinia to the Juba and Tana rivers; and the Kafa of south-west Galaland, reaching southward to near Lake Rudolf. In the south-west of the Ethiopian Empire there are many unclassified Hamitic dialects (as there are in northern German East Africa) which are much mixed with negro word-roots and syntax. These almost merge into the Masai and Nilotic.

11. This word is evidently derived from the Zambezi Bantu words Mwene-mutapa = Lord of the Mine. Another form “Bena mutapa” for the people might be translated “Brothers of the mine”—Bena (Baina) in Old Bantu = brothers, or “clan.”

12. Although the people of west and south Madagascar are very negroid in appearance and those of the north are evidently mixed with Arab and Indian blood, the Malay-like Malagasy language is the one universal speech throughout the whole island. It contains, however, loan words from Himyaritic Arabic and from East African Bantu.

13. Some evidence, chiefly traditional, is adduced to show that Madagascar was once inhabited by a yellow-skinned dwarfish race of Bushman stock known as the “Kimo.” But it is still more difficult to imagine a Bushman race possessing canoes sufficiently large and seaworthy for the crossing of the Moçambique channel; or to ascribe to the prehistoric Arabs, who may have traded with south-east Africa, the motiveless transportation of Bushmen to south-west Madagascar. The supposed negro aborigines, apart from the dwarfish Kimo, are known traditionally by the Malagasy as “Ba-zimba” or “Va-zimba,” and their burial places are pointed out. The Ba-zimba may have been the mysterious race which built Zimbabwe.

14. Yet from two to ten thousand years ago, the Comoro island chain was probably larger and approached much nearer to the mainland, thus permitting Madagascar to be reached (by swimming) by two or three species of hippopotamus (now extinct) and by the bush-pig which still exists there. It is very improbable that either of these mammals could have swum the distance of 200 miles which now separates East Africa from the nearest Comoro Island.

15. The alleged records on stone scarabs are discussed by Prof. Flinders Petrie in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Nov. 1908.

16. This is an interesting observation. Not only does the statement repeatedly occur in the writings of ancient Greek and Roman geographers that the African elephant was found wild in Mauretania in these times, but this animal is pictured in the remarkable rock engravings in the Sus country in the extreme south of Morocco and in the central and south-eastern part of Algeria, besides being represented in the Roman mosaics of Tunisia, now exhibited at the Bardo Museum near Tunis. (See for this the travels of the Moroccan Jewish Rabbi, Mordokhai, the various works recently published by Mons. Gautier of the University of Algiers, and the researches of Professor A. Pomel.) The Phoenicians tamed the African elephant, found wild in the forests of Western Tunisia, which was a somewhat smaller breed than the Indian elephant or the elephant of tropical Africa, yet a typical African elephant in its large ears. It was more often figured on Roman medals and in Roman sculpture than the Indian type.

17. It does not follow, however, that these Troglodytes were dwarfs or negroes, or palæolithic in culture, or greatly different in race from the Berbers. They may have been akin to the Troglodytes still to be seen in the Tunisian Sahara, a Berber people living in caves, which are either natural hollows in the limestone rock or have been artificially excavated. Other allusions and incidents connected with the story of Hanno and an analysis of that story are fully discussed in the first volume of the present writer’s book on Liberia, published in 1906. It is remarkable to note that the little islet at the head of the Rio de Oro Gulf is still called “Herne” by the Moors.

18. The national name for the Phoenicians was χnā (Khna, Kinah, Kinahni, ‘Canaan’). The Greeks invented for them the name Phoinike, Phoinikes, which the Latins adopted as Punica, Poeni or Puni, from Phoinix = red; the Phoenicians appearing to the fair-skinned Greeks as “red” men. Very often they went by the name of Sidonoi (Sidonians), from the name of their oldest city Sidunnu (Sidon, Saida).

19. The Phoenicians may have first brought into vogue the word “Africa.” This would seem to have been derived (see note on p. 10 of Victor Piquet’s Les Civilisations de l’Afrique du Nord: Paris, 1909) from a Berber tribe named Afarik, Awarigha—or latterly, Awuraghen—which occupied the north-east coast of Tunisia in pre-Roman times, but which with other Berber peoples retreated by degrees into the interior till at length it became a Tuareg or desert people. Under the name of Awuraghen, dwelling in Asjer, west of Ghat, this tribe, which has given its name to the whole continent, still exists.

20. The computation given by Eusebius would, according to the late Sir E. H. Bunbury, date the founding of the colony at 631 B.C. In laying stress on the word historical I wish to impress on the reader that European immigration into Africa from Sicily and Spain stretches far back beyond the records of written history to ages quite remote in the existence of man.

21. The fruit of the date-palm was almost certainly the lotos of the ancients. It is much more likely to have made a profound impression on them by its honey-sweet pulp than the insipid berries of the Zizyphus.

22. The modern Santorin or Thira, the most southern of the Cyclades.

23. The ‘cranes’ with whom the pygmies fought.

24. Other evidence goes to show that baboons were found wild in the southern parts of Mauretania in ancient days.

25. This evidence has been fully discussed by the present writer in other works, such as, for example, The Nile Quest, London, 1904, The Opening-up of Africa, 1911, Liberia, 1906, George Grenfell and the Congo, 1908, and Pioneers in West Africa, 1911, in which works references to the opinions and researches of other writers are also given.

26. The Vandals were a Gothic people supposed to be not far from the Angles and Saxons in origin. After sweeping down on France and Italy and settling in Baetica or southern Spain—a region to which they are supposed to have given their name, Vandalusia, corrupted by the Arabs into Andalusia—they built ships, on the Spanish coast, crossed over with a host of Spanish camp followers into Morocco, and with the aid of the Berbers swept the Roman power before them till they conquered the whole country to the frontiers of Tripoli. They also acquired Sardinia. By degrees they concentrated their settlement on northern Tunisia, and here, mingling with the Roman colonists and the Berber indigenes, they gradually lost all their fighting spirit. But probably they added a not unimportant element of European (Aryan) blood to the mixed populations of North Africa, a region more or less ruled by their Teutonic kings for 116 years.

27. Tawareq is the plural of an Arabic word, Tarqi, a raider.

28. The origin of the name Allah applied by Muhammadans to the Supreme God. Allah acquired a masculine sense although in its original form the word was feminine.

29. Jerba, usually called Meninx by the ancients, is supposed to have been the Island of Lotos-Eaters of Greek mythology.

30. The origin of the name Kairwan has been much disputed. The present writer, visiting this place some years ago, was told by a native that the word was the Arab name for a small bustard-like courser (a bird which the French call Poule de Kairouan), and that, seeing this bird in large numbers—where it is still to be found—in the marshy plain on which the city was built, the Arabs gave its name to the town. Kairwan was chosen as the site for the Muhammadan capital by the early Arab invaders because it was considered sufficiently far from the sea-coast to be beyond the reach of attack from a Byzantine fleet.

31. Count Julian appears to have been a Byzantine governor on the coast of Morocco, who after the Byzantine downfall to some extent attached himself to the Romanized Gothic kingdom of Spain.

32. This is the Arab rendering of her name. Dahia meant “queen” and Al-Kahina “the wise woman” or “prophetess.” This remarkable personage was from a Berber tribe, the Jorāwa, which had been converted to Judaism and was partly Jewish in blood.

33. Jewish colonies began to settle in North Africa soon after the destruction of Jerusalem, or even as far back as the Ptolemaic rule over Egypt. The Jews were particularly attracted to Tunisia and Tripoli (the former Carthaginian coast) by their kinship in race and language with the Phoenicians.

34. The rocky peninsula where Tarik landed was called by the Arabs Jibl-al-Tarik, a name which subsequently became corrupted by the Spaniards into Gibraltar.

35. There has been a succession of great cities since prehistoric times ranging round about or situated on the site of Cairo—an “inevitable” city site, because it is at the head of the Nile Delta. Memphis was only 12 miles away, and Heliopolis or On less than half that distance. Babel or Babylon was built by emigrants from old Babylon on the Euphrates on the actual site of Cairo in about 525 B.C. This became a Roman city and was succeeded by the Arab Al Fostat or Masr.

36. A little more than one-third of the modern population of Cyrenaica, Tripoli, and Mauretania is of Arab race; but seven-tenths of the North African population speak Arabic and not Berber.

37. Prince of the Faithful.

38. From the Arabic Wahad, “The One.”

39. It also later on left traces of its temporary occupation on the island of Jerba, where a fine Spanish fortress remains intact to this day.

40. Arzila.

41. Sharif, plur. Shorfa, means in Arabic “nobly born.” The first Sharifian Arab dynasty ruled Morocco from 788 to 970. Then followed a long succession of Berber dynasties till 1524, when the Sa’adi Sharifs from the upper Draa began to rule Morocco. The third Sharifian Arab dynasty—Filali, from Ta-filal-t—succeeded the Sa’adi Sultans in the 17th century and still occupies the Moroccan throne.

42. Timbuktu had been founded by a Tawareq (Berber) tribe about 1100 A.C.

43. or Askia.

44. Now in the hinterland of Algeria, and occupied by the French.

45. Algeria and Tunis were conquered by Turkish pirates, quite as much from the mild Berber dynasties possessing them as from the Spanish encroachments. Tripoli was taken from the Knights of Malta. Gradually all these three Regencies detached themselves from the Turkish Empire in everything but the mere acknowledgment of suzerainty; but, in 1835, the Turks abruptly resumed the direct control of Tripoli and Barka, to which they added Fezzan in 1842.

46. or ’Oman. Maskat is the capital of the principality of ’Oman (a word which is really pronounced ’ūman) in East Arabia, ruled by an “Imam” or laicized descendant of a line of preacher-kings or “Prince Bishops,” leaders of the Ibadite sect of Puritan Muhammadans, believing mostly that sin was worse than unbelief. The Ibadites were identical in origin with the N. African Khariji already described, whose tenets, in the 18th and 19th centuries, were unconsciously repeated by the followers of Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, the conquering “Wahhabis” of Nejd.

47. The architectural style known as Saracenic made its beginnings in Inner Syria and Mesopotamia a century or nearly so before the Muhammadan invasion; and the “Horseshoe Arch” or the arch prolonged for more than half a circle was invented by Hellenized Syrians in the sixth century of this era. The “Mahrab” of the Mosque and some of the doming were added by the Arabs and actually descend from the symbols of phallic worship.

48. From the Arabic Al-gharb the ‘west,’ the ‘sunset.’ The title of the Kings of Portugal was “King of Portugal and the Algarves, on this side and on the other side of the sea in Africa, etc.”

49. This battlefield was on the banks of the river Lukkus, not very far from the coast port of Al-Araish, the Roman Lixus.

50. It was finally ceded to Spain by Portugal in 1668.

51. It had however been known to Italian and Norman navigators a century earlier. Indeed it is increasingly probable that the Portuguese as discoverers of West Africa had been preceded a hundred years earlier by the Genoese, the Catalans and Majorcans, and the Norman French of Dieppe. A remarkable map of the continent of Africa was painted in Italy, about 1351, and is now in the Medicean Library at Florence. It is known as the Laurentian Portolano and gives the most correct general outline of the whole continent which had as yet been depicted. For the first time the great Bight of the Gulf of Guinea is shown, together with the tongue-like projection southwards of Central and Southern Africa. There is even the indication of a river where the Congo emerges into the South Atlantic.

52. Only a long inlet in the Desert coast. At the head of this inlet was the little island of Kerné (still called Herné by the Moors) which was once a trading station of the Carthaginians.

53. Nowadays known as Elmina.

54. As will be seen in another chapter, there are traditions of Norman merchants from Dieppe having established forts or trading stations along the West African coast in the later years of the 14th century, especially at “La Mine d’Or”—Elmina—where the Normans possibly preceded the Portuguese.

55. Mr E. G. Ravenstein deduces 1485 as the date from the details shown in the coat of arms in the inscription. This inscription was only discovered on the high rock, near the Mpozo confluence, by a Swedish missionary in 1906. The inscription begins “Aqi chegaram os navios do esclarecido Rey Dom Joam ho seg° de Portugall,” and is followed by the names of Diogo Cam (Cão) and others. See the Geographical Journal for June, 1908.

56. They described the Arab settlements on the South-East African coasts and alleged that certain Arab ships had been driven by stress of weather past the Cape of Good Hope, and had brought back word of the northward trend of the west coast.

57. The Canary Islands, inhabited by a race of Berber origin, had been rediscovered (for Greek and Roman geographers knew of them) by Normans and Genoese in the 14th century. Previous to that they had already been brought into touch with the Moors of the Moroccan coast, though they were never Islamized but remained in some respects in the primitive, stone-age condition which the Berbers of the mainland had quitted two thousand years before. The men often went naked; but the race in some respects exhibited a characteristic Neolithic civilization and was far removed from savagery. The archipelago was partially conquered by a Norman adventurer, Jean de Betancourt or Bethencourt; and his title after passing through many hands was finally claimed by Portugal. Portugal, however, transferred her rights to Castile in 1479.

58. It is necessary to discriminate in spelling between the river Congo and Congoland generally and the little kingdom of Kongo between Stanley Pool and the Atlantic coast. This important native state, whose legendary founder was a mighty hunter armed with an iron spear (Kongo) gave its name to the great river, which was also styled Zaire by the Portuguese from the native term Nzadi.

59. The original name of this tribe, which came from the southern Congo basin, was “Imbangola.” Jaga was apparently like the Jinga of old Angola merely the title of their clan-chieftains, Jok or Kiokwe (as they are called in Lunda) was a nickname meaning “Hyena.” Their descendants seem still to reside on the river Kwango behind Angola under the name of Imbangala. The Ba-yaka of the Northern Kwango are quite distinct.

60. Grandson of the explorer, Bartolomeu.

61. Such wheat as is cultivated in Africa north of 15° N. Latitude is similar to the European and Egyptian kinds; the wheat introduced by the Arabs and Portuguese into Zambezia is red wheat, apparently from India.

62. Duarte Lopes, who records this fact in his description of the Congo region at the end of the 16th century, gives incidentally or directly other interesting scraps of information, such as, that the coco-nut palm was found by the Portuguese growing on the West coast of Africa. This palm, we know, originated in the Pacific Archipelagoes or on the Pacific coast of tropical America. It is possible to imagine that its nuts may have been carried over the sea to Southern India and thence to Madagascar and the coast of East Africa, but, inasmuch as the coco-nut palm cannot grow further south than Delagoa Bay owing to the cooling of the climate it is not very clear how it reached the tropical West African coast, unless it was introduced by Europeans. Lopes mentions the banana for the first time under the name “banana,” a name which seems to be derived from the Vai and other languages of the Sierra Leone-Liberia coast. Hitherto this fruit had only been known vaguely to Europe as the Indian fig or by its Arab name, which was latinized into Musa. The long banana or plantain was of ancient and widespread cultivation throughout tropical Africa, but the small banana with stubby fruit seems to have been a recent introduction from India which has penetrated into few parts of the interior.

63. Philip II of Spain had the best claim to the Portuguese throne after the death without heirs of the Cardinal-King Henrique. But the Portuguese disliked union with Spain and would have preferred to elect a Portuguese king.

64. In 1621 Pope Paul V sent a mission to the King of Kongo at São Salvador; and thenceforward, until 1717, the Kongo kingdom was evangelized by Italian and Belgian Capuchins, and after 1673 by Belgian Recollets friars. But in 1717 the Capuchins were expelled by the king’s people. In 1760 Catholic missions were resumed in Congoland (Loango and Kongo) by French, Italian and Portuguese missionaries; but these too came to an end by 1800, and for some eighty years the Kongo kingdom relapsed into complete barbarism.

65. This place was named after the Baron de Mossamedes, a Portuguese Governor of Angola, afterwards Minister for the Colonies.

66. This fort, by the abortive Congo Treaty of 1884, was to have been made over to England. Although the Portuguese never in any sense ruled over or controlled Dahomé, their indirect influence and their language were prominent at the Dahomean court because certain Brazilians had during the first half of this century established themselves on the coast and in the interior as influential merchants and slave traders. Their descendants now form a Portuguese-speaking Brazilian caste in Dahomé.

67. Most prominent features, and some countries on the west and south coasts of Africa from the Senegal round to the Cape of Good Hope and Moçambique, bear Portuguese names: Cape Verde is “The Green Cape,” Sierra Leone (Serra Leoa) is “The Lionlike Mountains,” Cape Palmas “The Palm-trees Cape,” Cape Coast is Cabo Corso “The cruising Cape,” Lagos is “The Lakes,” Calabar (Calabarra) is “The bar is silent,” Cameroons is Camaroẽs “prawns,” Gaboon is Gabāo “The Hooded Cloak” (from the shape of the estuary), Corisco is “Lightning,” Cape Frio is “The Cold Cape” and Angra Pequena is “The Little Cove,” and so on. All the prominent points on the Liberian coast, and most of the Niger mouths, have Portuguese names.

68. This is a little coral islet about 2 miles long by ¼ mile broad, situated between 2 and 3 miles from the coast (a shallow bay), in 15 degrees south latitude, where the East African coast approaches nearest to Madagascar. It commands the Moçambique Channel. Its native name was probably originally Musambiki. By the neighbouring East African tribes it is now called Muhibidi, Msambiji, and Msambiki. It has sometimes been the only parcel of land remaining in Portuguese hands during the vicissitudes of their East African empire.

69. A corruption of Mwene-mutapa. According to some authorities this title meant “Lord Hippopotamus,” the hippopotamus on the Zambezi above Tete being looked upon as a Totem or sacred animal indicative of the royal clan; but in my personal opinion Mwene-mutapa is really “Lord of the Mine, or gold mining,” mutapo or mtapo being a shallow pit dug in clay or sand for mining, or washing gold.

70. Where they have not yet brought under subjection the Muhammadan Makua and the Arab half-castes of Angoshe. The chief native foes of the Portuguese in East Africa at the close of the 16th century were the Ba-zimba, one of those Zulu-like marauding tribes like the modern Angoni, which would range over hundreds of miles in a few months and commit devastations that left their effects for nearly a century.

71. Except Mombasa, which was retaken and held between 1728 and 1729.

72. Zumbo was given up (though it was never much more than a Jesuit Mission Station) in 1740.

73. These Makololo chiefs were formerly headmen of Livingstone’s second expedition, left behind by him on the Cataract Shire to stiffen the resistance of the timid natives against the Muhammadan slave raiders.

74. The modern and existing town of that name was not founded till 1867.

75. The use of the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi gives free water communication between the outer world and Nyasaland, by way of the Zambezi and Shire rivers.

76. In 1490.

77. Or the rock, or “Peñon,” overlooking the town, seized and garrisoned by Cardinal Ximenez in 1509. It was taken by Khaireddin, the Turkish corsair, in 1530.

78. Held by Spain from 1535 to 1574.

79. The following is a résumé of the history of the first intervention of Turkey in Barbary. In 1504 Uruj (Barbarossa I), a pirate of mixed Turco-Greek origin, attracted by the rumours of American treasure-ships in the western Mediterranean, captured Algiers (1516) and Tlemsan (1517); but he was defeated and killed by the Spaniards coming from Oran. His younger brother Khaireddin (Barbarossa II) appealed to Turkey, which had just (1518) conquered Egypt, and received from Sultan Selim the title of Turkish Beglerbeg of Algiers and a reinforcement of 2000 Turks. He mastered almost all Algeria, was made Admiral of the Turkish fleet in 1533, captured Tunis in 1534, was driven out by Charles V, and retired to Turkey in 1535. His successors were sometimes Sardinian, Calabrian, Venetian, Hungarian renegades; but among the more celebrated was Dragut, a Turk of Karamania.

80. Susa, Sfax, and Monastir, which were lost to the Turks by 1550.

81. The oldest of her continental African possessions, dating from 1490.

82. The Chafarinas Islands are off the mouth of the Muluya river, near the Algerian frontier.

83. This Portuguese name becomes in Spanish Rio de Oro.

84. This also, like so many other places on the West coast of Africa, was named by the Portuguese; Corisco meaning “sheet lightning,” a name applied to the place because it was first seen during a violent thunderstorm.

85. Bube is said to be a cant term meaning “male” (from the Bantu root, -ume, -lume) and the real name of this race is perhaps Ediya. This subject is fully treated in the author’s book, George Grenfell and the Congo, which gives a full account of Fernando Pô and the Bube indigenes.

86. Their “capital” was at Elmina; they held—when in full vigour—Fort Nassau (built before they took Elmina from the Portuguese), Kormantin, Secondee, Takorari, Accra, Cape Coast Castle, Vredenburg, Chama, Batenstein, Dikjeschop (Insuma), Fort Elise Carthage (Ankobra), Apollonia, Dixcove, Axim, Prince’s Fort near Cape Three-points, Fort Wibsen, and Pokquesoe. Before the abolition of the slave trade, Dutch Guinea was very prosperous. It was governed by a subsidized Chartered Company—the Dutch West India Co.—under the control of the States General; and the local government consisted of a Governor-General at Elmina, a chief Factor (or trader), a chief Fiscal (or accountant-general), an under-fiscal (or auditor) and a large staff of factors, accountants, secretaries, clerks and assistant clerks. There was a chaplain; there were Dutch soldiers under Dutch officers who garrisoned the forts. After the wars of the French Revolution the Dutch Government took over the management of these establishments on the Gold Coast.

87. As Sir Charles Lucas points out in his Historical Geography of the British Colonies, “164 years after Bartolomeu Diaz had sighted the Cape of Good Hope.”