Population of Malayala—Manners, Customs and Industry of the Inhabitants—Political State of the Country.
THE inhabitants of Malayala, which, comprehending all its provinces from Cape Illi to Tovala, is 120 Indian miles in length; and from the Gauts to the sea, between twenty-five and thirty in breadth, consist, besides the native Indians, who are partly Pagans and partly Christians, of Arabs, black and white Jews, Canarians, and Europeans of different nations, who have there formed establishments. In the year 1771, the Christians of St. Thomas, according to M. Florentius à Jesu, the bishop and apostolic vicar on the coast of Malabar, amounted to 94,600. In the year 1787, when a poll-tax was about to be imposed on them by the king of Travancor, they estimated their number themselves at 100,000 persons. Ten thousand of them, I confess, lost their lives during the war against Tippoo Sultan; but still there will remain 90,000 Catholic Christians, who follow the Syrio-Chaldaic ritual. They have in their possession sixty four churches, some of which however were destroyed by Tippoo. The Jacobites have thirty-two churches, to which belong 50,000 Schismatics. These, therefore, form all together 140,000 Christians, who adhere to the Syrio-Chaldaic rites. There are likewise seventy-five churches of the Mucoas and Paravas on the coast of Travancor; and twenty churches belonging to the Latin ritual, which lie in the district between Porrocada and Cape Illi. All these churches can muster more than 100,000 Christians, newly converted to the Romish faith. The number of the Jews who reside at Mattincera, Muttam, and Cayamcolla, may be about from 15 to 20,000. To these must be added 100,000 Arabs, established there since the ninth century; also the Canarians, Banians, Cettis, and Cumuttis, who together amount to 30,000 souls; and, lastly, 15,000 Europeans, Creoles, Mestises, and Topazis, who are partly Catholics, partly Lutherans and Calvinists. But far greater than the sum-total of all these foreigners, is the number of the original inhabitants of the country. The former may be estimated at 400,000, the latter at 1,600,000, so that Malayala contains above two millions of inhabitants. This calculation was made too at a time when the population of the country had greatly suffered by the wars with Hayder Ali Khan and Tippoo Sultan. If we reflect, therefore, that this district is not very large, that it is intersected by a great number of streams, and that on the east it is bounded by high mountains and impenetrable forests, it is evident that, in proportion to its cultivated surface, it is extremely well peopled[84]. This is to be ascribed chiefly to the simple and temperate manner in which the Indians live, as they eat nothing but rice, milk, fruit, herbs, butter, coco-nut oil, fish, and other kinds of food which are easy of digestion, and promote the generative powers[85]. Monogamy, which prevails among the Christians and Pagans, though among the latter it is not general, contributes also to increase the population; for, by these means, the affection between parents and children is preserved, and that also between husband and wife. Another circumstance which tends to promote population is, that all young women, without exception, must marry. One of the chief objects of every father, whether Christian or Pagan, is to procure husbands for his daughters; and when he is not able to give them portions, he is assisted either by the cast to which he belongs, or by the Christian congregation of which he is a member. There are here neither convents, nor any other establishments, in which young women can be immured; but they are obliged, as already said, to enter into the state of matrimony, and to gain their livelihood by the labour of their hands. The Indians are not fond of celibacy, and the state of widowhood is held in the utmost contempt. The women in Malabar, indeed, bring forth few children; but the loss occasioned to population by this natural deficiency is fully supplied by the great number of marriages. The expence of rearing children is also rendered extremely easy, as they require very little for their nourishment and clothing[86]. In the second book I shall give a fuller account of these and other causes which contribute to increase the population of India. I must, however, not omit here to observe, that it is impeded also by very great obstacles. Among these are:
1. The small-pox, which, in India, are extremely malignant, and which every year sweep off many thousands[87].
2. Polygamy, and the celibacy of a great number of persons who cannot resolve to confine their affections to one object[88].
3. The continual wars and revolutions in India, by which a great number of men are destroyed.
4. The oppression of sovereign princes, who impose on their subjects excessive labour, and by these means ruin many persons both married and unmarried.
5. The slave trade, by which several thousands of men are sold annually, like cattle, and sent out of the country.
The complexion of the natives of Malabar is brown, but much brighter than that of the Tamulians, who inhabit the coast of Ciòlamandala. The Mucoas or fishermen, the Paravas or people who manufacture and dye the cotton articles with which they carry on trade, and all those who reside on the sea-coast, are totally black; because, by the nature of their employments, they are always exposed to the heat of the sun, and to the sea air. The nobler casts, and other families who live in palm-gardens and enclosures[89], are much fairer; because they spend the greater part of their time under the shade of trees, and are surrounded by a milder atmosphere, which moderates the heat of the sun. I have seen Brahman women, both married and unmarried, who were uncommonly beautiful. The most of the female Indians have fine long hair, black eyes, extended ears which are pierced, and straight delicate persons. They are accustomed to wash themselves twice a day; to anoint their bodies every week with coco-nut oil, or the white of an egg; and to rub their skin with a plant called Incia, the rind of which has the property of removing all filth. This ablution and friction strengthen the body, and at the same time prevent too violent perspiration. Till their thirtieth year they are stout and vigorous; but after that period they alter much faster than the women in any of the nations of Europe[90]. Early marriage, labour and diseases exhaust their constitutions before the regular time of decay. They are lively, active and tractable; possess great acuteness; are fond of conversation; employ florid expressions, and a phraseology abundant in images; never carry any thing into effect till after mature deliberation; are inquisitive and prying, yet modest in discourse; have a fickle inconstant disposition; make promises with great readiness, yet seldom perform them; are importunate in their requests, but ungrateful when they have obtained their end; behave in a cringing obsequious manner when they fear any one, but are haughty and insolent when they gain the superiority; and assume an air of calmness and composure when they can acquire no satisfaction for an injury, but are malicious and irreconcileable when they find an opportunity of being revenged. I was acquainted with many families who had ruined themselves with law-suits, because they preferred the gratification of revenge to every consideration of prudence. The men, both of the higher and lower classes, bind a piece of cotton cloth round their loins, and for the most part leave the remainder of the body uncovered. The women of the inferior casts go about almost in the same manner. The wives and daughters of the Brahmans, on the other hand, conceal the upper part of the body with a piece of fine cotton cloth, the extremity of which is thrown over the shoulder. They go bare-footed; but wear a great many ornaments, which generally consist of three or four bracelets of brass, a necklace of gold or precious stones, and ear-rings of gold or of diamonds. They bind their hair together in a roll on the top of the head, and paint on the forehead some sacred mark. They bear in their hand an umbrella of palm-leaves, which they always hold before their face when they meet any of the male sex. They, however, turn speedily round, in general, when a man has passed them, and seem to cast a wistful look towards him. This is a plain proof that in every country of the globe the daughters of Eve are subject to the like weaknesses.
The houses of the nobility and opulent persons consist of two storeys. Before the lowest there is generally a small hall, supported by thin pillars of Teka wood, which is of a yellow colour, and exceedingly hard. This hall is called Varanda, and supplies the place of a parlour. The upper storey is called Malaga; and in this the Indians are accustomed to sleep, to study, or to perform any business in which they do not wish to be interrupted. A building, which consists of seven storeys, is called Elàmmaliga, that is, a tower; and is considered as a habitation which none but a king or reigning prince dare inhabit. The huts of the poor people are constructed of the branches of the coco-nut tree interwoven through each other; and are covered with its leaves, or with rushes or straw. The entrance into these huts is low, and the interior part of them is dark. Their whole furniture consists of a Kattila, or bed-frame, on which a mat is placed; a few flat dishes of copper or brass; a Kindi, or brass drinking vessel with a spout; a pot or kettle, in which they boil their rice; a Vilacca, or round lamp of iron or brass, fastened to a chain, by which it can be suspended in the middle of the hut; and a large wooden mortar, in which they pound their Nella, or unshelled rice. Though the Indians see daily before them the furniture and cooking utensils of the Europeans, they have never yet thought proper to make use of them. The customs prevalent among them above three thousand years ago still remain unchanged[91]. We must, however, do the Indians the justice to confess, that they are very well acquainted with agriculture, botany, gardening, hunting, fishing, and architecture[92]. Their style and taste are indeed extremely wretched; but they possess a wonderful aptitude for imitating the arts and inventions of the Europeans, as soon as the method has been pointed out to them. The greater part of the houses in Malabar are built of Teka wood, which is much harder and heavier than oak, and which withstands corruption for a very great length of time. I have seen several houses more than 400 years old, which during that period had suffered little or no decay. The palm-leaves with which they are covered, and the above wood, have the property of attracting the moisture, and of suffering it again to escape, as soon as a breath of air begins to stir, of the sun to shine. Hence it happens, that these houses are much healthier than those of stone and lime; which, if not allowed to dry properly, evaporate, for a long time after they are built, a great many calcareous and highly pernicious particles[93].
The Indians, after the manner of all the oriental nations, never eat at noon. In the morning, before they go out to labour, they generally take their Cagni, or beverage consisting of water in which a certain quantity of rice has been boiled till all its mealy, nourishing, and cooling particles are dissolved. After this breakfast they proceed to their labour, and continue it without interruption till about four o’clock. An hour after, or sometimes later, they take their evening meal; go to sleep at sun-set, and rise next morning at break of day. This mode of life is perfectly agreeable to the nature of man, for whom the elements and heavenly bodies were created. It not only saves the Indians a great deal of oil, but secures to them agreeable repose, and preserves their bodies healthful. The day and the night are almost always of the same length near the equator, and therefore they seldom or never depart from the above regular course. The women are obliged to cook, and to place the dishes on the table. The husband and wife never eat together; for the Indians consider it as indecent, and contrary to that respect which is due to the former. The consequence is, that their meals are very short; and that nothing takes place, in the presence of the rest of the family, which can offend against decency or good manners. At table they use merely the right hand; for the left, with which they wash the lower part of the body, &c. they look upon as unclean. The rice is served up on a broad banana leaf, which supplies the place of a dish; and near it is placed the Karil, that is, soup which consists of herbs, fruit, pepper and cardamoms. It is exceedingly well prepared; has a delicious smell, and a pungent taste. This soup they pour, at different times, over the rice, which in very small morsels they put into their mouth with the right hand. If they have no Kail, or spoon, they employ in its stead a Mava leaf rolled together. When their meal is finished, they throw away their dish and spoon, because leaves of the like kind may be every where found. Persons of condition, however, employ at their meals vessels of copper and brass, which they keep remarkably clean, and which are always washed after they have been used. They eat, along with their rice, sour milk and butter, or herbs which have been baked in butter or oil. The king of Travancor has generally at his table fifteen different kinds of soup, which are varied from time to time. He eats also preserved nutmegs with his rice, which of itself has an excellent and aromatic taste.
During their meals the Indians sit down on a mat spread out on the floor, and, according to the oriental custom, place their legs across each other under them. They drink nothing but water; and when they wish to quench their thirst, they pour it from their Kindi, or drinking vessel, directly into their throat, without letting it touch their lips. When the men have ended their meal, it is then the women’s turn; and as soon as these have finished, they repair altogether to a river or pond, where they wash themselves, and mutter over various forms of prayer[94]. This ablution is called Sandhivanana, that is, the evening’s devotion; and is directed either to Shiva or Vishnu, Bhagavadi or Bhavani, to the goddess of nature and her children, the stars and the elements. They are convinced that the whole world, with every thing in it, had a beginning; that it will endure for a certain period, and at last have an end: and this belief conducts them to exalted ideas respecting their present and future destination. Never are they heard to pronounce an indecent word, except on the festival of Shiva, or Bhagavadi, in honour of which deities they always sing obscene songs. As for love letters, they are totally unknown to them. No young man dare venture to visit the object of his affection at her home; for the parents, on whose will the marrying of the girl depends, would consider this as an infringement on their right. This observation, however, is applicable only to the nobility and families of distinction; for people of the lower casts have manners and customs peculiar to themselves. Thus, for example, when they address themselves to a prince, brahman, magistrate or superior, they salute him by folding the hands together, raising them above their head, letting them then fall down, turning the fingers of both hands three times outwards, and raising up their folded hands again. They then place the left hand on their breast, the right on the mouth, and in that posture wait for permission to speak. This ceremony is called Tolunu. When a scholar wishes to address his preceptor, he must first prostrate himself at full length before him. This method of shewing respect is called Shashtanga. A scholar never dares to sit down in the presence of his Guru or teacher[95].
The industry of the Indians does not arise so much from their ingenuity, as from the fertility of the soil which they cultivate. They plant rice, pepper, the areca tree, millet, ginger, sugar-canes, magnel or saffron, beans, pease, and mudira, a kind of corn which they use for feeding horses. From the sesamum, of which they raise also great quantities, they procure an oil, employed either for burning in their lamps, or for anointing their bodies during their lustrations. Prunes, tamarinds, cardamoms, wild cinnamon or Cassia lignea, Cassia fistula, long pepper, Ciaca, Teka, Biti, Ayani, Mava, and Sandal wood, grow here without any nursing or care. Of the so called Nella, or rice in the shell, there are three kinds, viz. Virippa, Mundaven, and Puncia. The first kind is reaped in September, the second in December or January, and the third in March or April. These three crops, however, are not procured from the same field; and the last, during the summer, is brought forward by strong and often repeated watering. The water is drawn from the rivers in buckets, and conducted to the rice-fields by channels between them. The Nella is reaped in such a manner that the straw is left standing on the ground: it is then threshed; scalded in hot water; spread out on mats, where it is left to dry in the sun; and afterwards preserved in Patajas, or granaries, built of Teka wood. Those people who in the course of the year use only a small quantity of Nella, hoard it up without scalding it, and subject it to that operation as they consume it. The scalding and pounding, as well as every other preparation of the Nella, are left entirely to the women. When it is dried, pounded, and perfectly white, though still raw, it is called Ciorra, and in the Samscred language Annam or Odanam. The straw, as already mentioned, is left standing on the ground in order that it may rot and serve as manure. If it be not sufficient for that purpose, they make small pits here and there in the ground, fill them with leaves and tender twigs, which they cover with earth; and in this manner prepare whatever quantity of manure may be necessary. As the Indians consider cow-dung to be sacred, and daub it over their houses, it may be readily conceived that they never carry it out to their fields. All the lands, without exception, belong to the king, who sells them at pleasure, or lets them on lease. The Olà, or deed, in virtue of which the sovereign disposes of any piece of ground, and puts a person in full and free possession of it, is called Attipèra or Attiperòla Caranam. If the Olà relates only to the lease of such a piece of ground, it is named Pàttòla. The case is the same in regard to the sale or lease of a palm-garden.
That fruit, called in the Malabar language Tenga, and in the Samscred Sasyaga, is a large nut produced by the real palm-tree, or Tengamaram. When the young trees are carefully watered, they bear a number of such nuts at the end of five years. This tree and its fruit supply almost every thing necessary for the wants of man. Small ships, houses and roofs are formed of the trunk. Of the husk of the nut ropes are made; and the shell is employed for dishes and spoons. If the fruit be not quite ripe, the milk in it affords an excellent, cooling, and very wholesome beverage. When the milk is converted into a kernel, an oil is expressed from it. The sap which flows from the branches, gives the agreeable well-tasted Sura; and, when distilled, becomes a kind of brandy. If it be placed in the sun, with the addition of a little Nella, it is converted into strong vinegar. Of the tender bark of the tree, a sort of coarse linen is prepared. If the kernel be bruised while young, a kind of sweet cream will be obtained; and the pith extracted from the upper young shoots of the tree is employed for preparing the so called Aciara, a kind of confection which is eaten with rice. The substance which remains after the oil has been expressed from the kernel, and which is known by the name of Pinàca, supplies food for swine, ducks and poultry. In a word, I have reckoned up forty different properties which this tree possesses, and which are all useful to man.
Ginger grows at Cadaturutti, Adirampushe, Codamalur, and, in general, in districts to which the seawater cannot penetrate. The small black pepper is a kind of ivy, planted for the most part at the bottom of trees, the trunks of which are tall. Large forests of it may be found at Aragoshe, Poròtta, Valaya, Vaypur, and every where at the foot of the Gauts, where the soil is black, rich, argillaceous, and hot. The wild cinnamon grows in gardens as well as in the woods; and it is not improbable that it would equal in goodness that produced in the island of Ceylon, were it treated with proper care. The coffee plant propagates readily in the gardens and groves, and is not easily extirpated where it has once taken root; but it is not cultivated by the natives of Malabar, who bestow their attention on other productions of more utility.
The different kinds of wood known under the names of Teka, Viti, Ayani, and Ciaca or Plava, all grow on the mountains. The Teka wood is employed chiefly for building houses and ships. Of the Viti commodes, small tables, side-boards and bureaus are made. The forests are let upon lease by the king. The principal lessee of these kinds of wood, during my stay in India, was Mattu Taraguen, a Christian native, possessed of great property.
The cardamom is an aromatic production of a triangular form, and a hot fiery taste. This plant is about three or four feet in height, and has at the top a few broad, green, prickly leaves. Its stem, which is smooth, has neither leaves nor branches. From its root, concealed by the earth, there arise a few fibres, which bend backwards in a parabolic direction, and bear some small pods, that contain the seeds inclosed in four different small capsulæ. This production is stronger than pepper, and of more value. It is found at the bottom of the Gauts, at Maleatur, Codomangalam, Vaypur, and various other places. It is fond of growing under the shade of large thick-leaved trees, through which the sun cannot penetrate, and where the soil is manured by the fallen leaves that have rotted in the moisture. Pepper and cardamoms belong to the Bhandàraga, that is, the royal revenues; and no private person is permitted to trade with either of these articles. The king makes a real monopoly of them. Formerly those who smuggled them out of the country had their nose and ears cut off; but at present they are punished only with imprisonment. In regard to all the other productions of India trade is free; because the kings, in ancient times, were of opinion that it was contrary to their dignity to cause them to be sold on their own account. The modern kings, however, are not ashamed to act the part of merchants; but from this conduct their dominions derive very little benefit.
It appears, from what has been here said, that the inhabitants of Malayala are supplied with every necessary which their climate or manner of life can require; that the country produces much more than is annually consumed; and consequently that the inhabitants sell a great deal to foreigners, and receive in return every year considerable sums of money. Besides what they use themselves, they annually sell 10,000 bags of rice, and 1000 candil of pepper, to the English alone; who, in my time, paid for each candil, of 500 pounds, ninety rupees. The English also gave to the king of Travancor, for each candil of Malabar cinnamon (called of the old Cassia lignea), eighty rupees; and Malabar supplied at least 500 candil[96]. To this may be added 1000 candil of pepper sold every year to the Dutch; and 1000 candil more which the king delivered to the Chinese, Arabs, and other merchants, who sold it again on their own account.
I shall say nothing of the sale of Teka wood, which the Arabs and Persians employ for building their ships; nor of the trade carried on with cardamoms, as well as Copra, large quantities of which are every year sent to Persia, Arabia, and other eastern countries. Anandacetti, a merchant at Mattincera, always kept by him, for sale, Teka wood to the value of five lacks of rupees[97]. The stuffs and different articles of cotton which he had in his warehouses, without reckoning other merchandise, were worth four lacks more. This man purchased and sold, sometimes in a quarter of an hour, a whole ship’s cargo valued at five millions of rupees. Such instances are not uncommon in India. The merchants show to each other catalogues of their goods; select the principal articles by which they think they can acquire profit; mark and erase, sell, exchange and purchase, according as they find it for their advantage; and in this manner gain often in a single hour incredible sums. The king of Travancor purchases every year, from the Europeans, iron, cannon, and cloth for the use of his soldiers; but as the merchandise which he gives in return amounts to much more than the value of these articles, the English and Dutch are always in his debt. This in general is the result in regard to the balance of the Malabar trade; and we here see where the French crowns, the Dutch ducats, the Venetian sequins, the Spanish piastres, and the Portuguese lisabonines at last remain.
The king lets the lands on lease, four different ways:
1. Instead of money which he has to pay for military service performed; so that in time of peace a portion of land is assigned to each soldier. This land he must cultivate, and is obliged to live on its produce.
2. As Canam, or in lieu of a certain capital equivalent in value to such a piece of ground, and which is lent to the king as proprietor for a certain period mentioned in the lease or deed. The capital lent in this manner yields six per cent. annually in Nella or rice.
3. As Panam, that is, on mortgage, in virtue of which the person put in possession can use and cultivate such a piece of land.
4. As Pattam, that is, for a certain rent which must be paid to the lessee or possessor of the land, in case he lets it again.
In the contract, a copy of which, written on an ola, or palm leaf, is kept by each person, it is said: “I let a Parra of Candam, lying in such a place, under such conditions, and for such a length of time.” A Parra contains eight Dangaszi; one Dangaszi makes four Nali, and a Nali is equal to a bushel of rice. Candam is a field: a Parra of Candam is, therefore, a piece of land of such an extent that a Parra of rice can be sown in it. All lands, whether let on lease or not, must bring to the king the Muppara, that is, three Parra per cent. They are subject also to another tax called Nilavari, which must be paid every ten years for the first evaluation and measuring of them. The ground and soil, cultivated by the people, belong every where to the king. But the pagodas or temples have around them certain districts, their peculiar property, which belonged to them before this feudal system was introduced. The nobility alone can possess rice-fields or palm gardens; but this is applicable only to the Pagans. The rents must be paid in natura; and amount to a fourth part of the income which remains after all the taxes and imposts have been deducted.
It is unfortunately too true, that there are ministers who exercise the severest and most cruel oppression; by which means sovereigns are rendered odious or contemptible to their subjects, and whole countries and kingdoms brought to ruin. That this is sometimes the case on the coast of Malabar will appear from what follows:—Ceramperumal, who reigned in the tenth century, had a great many sons and grandsons, among whom he divided his dominions at his death. Each of them acquired a particular portion of land, or at least fief[98]. This was a great violation of the maxims of political prudence. It is well known how soon the conquests of Alexander the Great were lost after they had been divided among his generals. It was impossible for so many princes to unite in one common object, because each had his own private interest, and none of them placed confidence in another. The consequence of their weakness was, that they became contemptible to their subjects, and seldom or never were able to carry any measure into execution. Samuri, who by the Europeans is very improperly called Samorin, endeavoured to acquire a superiority over the neighbouring princes, by entering into an alliance with the Arabs of Calicut, who had established themselves in his dominions. He might, however, have foreseen, that these Arabs would one day become his most implacable enemies. He was so fortunate as to defeat the king of Cochin in several battles; and the latter found himself at length obliged to solicit the assistance, first of the Portuguese, and then of the Dutch: but neither of these nations could be sincere in their engagements to this prince; for, being foreigners, their views were directed merely to their own interest. By their help he was able to reduce his opponent Samuri to subjection; but, on the other hand, he was under the necessity of giving up a part of his revenues to the Portuguese.
For some time before, the Christians of St. Thomas had observed, to their great sorrow, that their mortal enemies the Arabs were always acquiring more influence, and that they were gradually endeavouring to get the chief power into their hands. On that account they retired from Canara and various other provinces belonging to Samuri, and established themselves in the territories of the king of Cochin. This event took place several years before the arrival of the Portuguese at Calicut. They chose from among their own number a king, who was called Beliarte, and who was obliged to engage that he would defend them from the Mahometans as well as the Pagans. He resided at Udiampera, a city belonging to the king of Cochin. The joy of the Christians of St. Thomas, when the Portuguese first arrived at Calicut, on the 18th of May 1498, may be readily conceived. They now expected not only to receive support in regard to the affairs of their religion, but also to recover those rights and privileges which they had enjoyed in the times of the Perumpadapil. They likewise flattered themselves that the Portuguese would assist their king, who was in a state of ruin.
Such a variety of circumstances, directly contrary to each other, were, according to their nature, inconsistent with public tranquillity. The war between Samuri and the king of Cochin continued. The faction of the former, distinguished by the name of Panircurra, was supported by all the princes and tribes in the northern parts of Malayala. The other party, at the head of which stood the king of Cochin, was called Ciovarecurra, and to it belonged all the petty princes in the south. Samuri was supplied by the Arabs with arms, money, and in short every necessary; and his safety depended entirely on the continuance of the war. If he made peace, he had to fear that the Arabs would revolt against him, as they only waited for a favourable opportunity to drive him from the throne; and this indeed actually took place in the year 1773, when he was stripped of his territories by Hayder Aly Khan, the king of Maïssur. The Mahometans now publicly called Hayder Aly their protector; and believed, as he professed the same religion, that he would treat them much better than Samuri, who was very much hated, not only on account of his acknowledging a different faith, but on account of his avarice, the oppression which he exercised against various merchants, and the luxury and licentiousness which prevailed at his court. In the above year Hayder Aly took Calicut, and deprived Samuri of the greater part of his territories. Thus ended the arbitrary government of one of the mightiest kings in all India; who was able to bring into the field more than 100,000 men, and who had in his hands almost the whole of the Malabar trade.
The king of Cochin was able to withstand his enemies till the year 1760; and perhaps would have gained the superiority, had he been in a condition to overawe the petty princes who were dependent on his government. These princes, who were not unanimous among themselves, attacked each other’s territories; carried away their subjects as captives; excited the chief men against one another; deprived several families of their property; and, as they were too weak to subdue an opulent and high-spirited people, gave to some private individuals full freedom to revenge the injuries which they had suffered. Scarcely a week now passed in which some murder was not committed. Children massacred their parents; and even the sovereign was no longer safe in his palace. Such crimes could not remain unpunished; and the inhabitants soon experienced that chastisement which their cruelty deserved.
The kings of Travancor had hitherto been insignificant princes, whose territories extended only about fifteen or twenty miles up the country from Cape Comari; and were, besides, not very fruitful. The sovereign of this district, at that time Vira Martanda Pala, was uncle to the present king Rama Varmer. He was a man of great pride, courage and talents; capable of undertaking grand enterprises, and from his youth had been accustomed to warlike operations. As he had concluded an alliance with the king of Madura, it needs excite no wonder, that, agreeably to his character, he should conceive the idea of making conquests, and of enlarging his unproductive dominions by the acquisition of new provinces. For this purpose he crossed the river Palur in the year 1764; fought a decisive battle with king Ciangaceri, and, having entirely subdued him, laid waste his territories with fire and sword; caused all the palaces, and even some of the Pagan temples, to be demolished; and took prisoners the neighbouring petty princes. The latter had been called in by Ciangaceri to his assistance; but they were at open variance with each other, and too much occupied with their own feuds to unite in one common cause against Vira Martanda Pala, who advanced to Airucutti, which is only three leagues distant towards the south from Cochin. His commander in chief, Martandapulla, laid siege to the place, and continued his conquests, which were completed by M. Eustatius de Lanoy, with whom I formed an acquaintance at Curriapalli in the year 1777. He drove Samuri on the other side of the river from Alangatta and Codungalur; assigned a small spot to the king of Cochin for his support; made himself master of all the fortresses; put the king’s troops on the same footing as the European; divided among them the conquered lands; caused them frequently to march through the country with full military parade, in order to keep the people in subjection to their rulers; and after Vira Martanda’s death, gave the kingdom, in which perfect tranquillity was now restored, to the present sovereign Rama Varmer, who had just entered the twenty-fourth year of his age. Thus ended the dominion of the petty Malabar sovereigns and princes: thus was humanity avenged; and thus were the crimes punished, and the licentiousness suppressed, by which this country had been distracted ever since the tenth century.
Before Vira Martanda undertook this expedition, he celebrated, at Tiruwandaburam, a horrid festival, which I have described in my Systema Brahmanicum. He caused several of the Pagan temples to be burnt; and this crime, one of the most heinous according to the principles of the Indians, could no otherwise be atoned for than by a very peculiar kind of purification. He was obliged by the Brahmans to get a cow made of gold, under which he was forced to creep in order to be freed from his sins. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are therefore in a great error when they assert, that the object of this ceremony was to raise the king to the degree of nobility. Both these authors ought to have reflected, that this tale was invented by the conquered people, to whom the king behaved with great severity, merely for the purpose of ridiculing him. The above golden cow was preserved, in the year 1787, in the royal treasury at Padmanaburam. I was at least told so by M. Donaudi, a captain in the king’s service, who had seen it.
Of a great part of the above events I was myself an eye-witness: the account given of the rest is taken from the information of persons worthy of credit, and in particular from the valuable manuscripts of Father Cruz Fernandez, a Malabar priest, which contain a minute relation of the war carried on by Vira Martanda Pala. I had an opportunity also of consulting a great many original documents, quoted in this work, which were preserved among the archives of the missionary establishment at Verapole. I conversed likewise on this subject with the present king and his generals Martandapulla and M. de Lanoy, who all three often came to Verapole, and to whom we were indebted, besides other marks of kindness, for freeing our convent, church, and surrounding district, from the payment of all taxes.
The military forces of the present king of Travancor consist of 50,000 men, disciplined according to the European manner; and 100,000 Malabar Nayris and Cegos, armed with bows and arrows, spears, swords, and battle-axes. He keeps two Valia Sarvadicàriacàrer, the Vadakemugham and the Tekmugham, one of whom is established in the north and the other in the south. Each of these has under him four other officers, called only Sarvadicàriacàrer. These have inspection over four subalterns or Cariacàrer; and these subalterns have under them Pravarticàrer, Ciandracarer, and Torracarer; or collectors of the taxes, overseers and judges. The troops are always marching up and down through the country, to change their cantonments, to enforce the collection of the taxes, and to preserve peace and tranquillity. Public security is again restored throughout the whole country; robbery and murder are no longer heard of; no one has occasion to be afraid on the highways; religious worship is never interrupted; and people may rest assured, that on every occasion justice will be speedily administered. The present king has caused several canals to be constructed, in order to unite different rivers with each other and with the sea. By his desire also a very beautiful road has been completed between Cape Comari and Cudungalur; so that in the course of twenty-four hours he can be informed of every thing that takes place throughout his whole kingdom. After deducting the expences of government, his yearly income may amount to half a million of rupees, arising from trade, duties, and various kinds of fines. One half of this revenue is deposited in the royal treasury, and never touched but in cases of the utmost necessity. The king, as well as all the other Pagan Indians, the chief men even not excepted, live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, and use no other food than rice, milk, fruit and herbs. He generally wears a turban of dark blue silk; a long white robe, fastened at the breast with a string of diamonds; long wide drawers, of red silk; and shoes, the points of which are bent backwards like those of the Chinese. A sabre is suspended from his shoulders; and in the blue girdle bound round his loins is stuck a poniard or Persian dagger, which can be used either for attack or defence. When he shews himself to the people in full state, he is attended by 5000 or 6000 men, together with a great number of palanquins and elephants. At the head of the procession is a band of musicians, and two court-poets, who celebrate in songs his great achievements. He is borne in a palanquin; and the principal gentlemen of his court must walk on each side of it. In my time he was very much attached to the Catholic missionaries. As often as he passed by the parsonage house at Angenga, where I resided two years, he always sent two of the gentlemen of his bed-chamber to enquire after my health.
This sovereign had two powerful enemies: one in the north, Tippoo Sultan, now prince of Maïssur and Concam; and another in the south-east, the prince of Arrucate, Mohamed Aly Khan, of whom I have already spoken in the preceding chapter. The latter has it in his power to make an attack, by Tovala, one of the fortresses which lie near Cape Comari, towards the east; and the former can attempt the same thing in the district of Palacaticeri, the last city in the kingdom of Concam, towards the west. Through a dread of these two dangerous neighbours, the king of Travancor found himself obliged to conclude a treaty of alliance with the English, and to make a common cause with them both in peace and war. As long as he enjoys the friendship of these allies, from whom he purchases freedom and security at a sufficiently dear rate, and as long as he pays regularly what is due on that account, his dominions will be protected and defended; but if ever a quarrel should arise between him and the governor of Madras, he is one of the first Indian princes that will fall a sacrifice. The annual tribute which he is obliged to pay to the English, amounts to half a lack of rupees, or 25,000 Roman scudi. In the time of war he must supply them, over and above, with horses, cannon, soldiers, and rice. He is an affable, polite, contented, prudent, and friendly man. On account of the integrity of his character, and his many good moral qualities, it is the more to be lamented that he is so zealously attached to idolatry, and is so much blinded as not to perceive the value of the Christian religion. It cannot, however, be denied, that nothing tends so much to rivet the affection of subjects, as when the sovereign adheres to the established religion, and worships the deity in the same manner as his people. Rama Varmer never omits being present at the ceremonies and devotional exercises of the Pagans, as will be seen in the following chapter[99].