Author’s Voyage to Europe.—Some Account of the Island of Ceylon.

ON the 12th of March 1789 I embarked at Cochin in order to return to Europe, that I might proceed to Rome and deliver the letters which I had received from the procurator of the Missionary Establishment on the coast of Malabar, and from the agents appointed by the Propaganda for its correspondence with the Christians of St. Thomas. The ship in which I took my passage was the Calypso frigate of thirty guns, having on board three hundred and forty persons, partly seamen and partly marines. This vessel was commanded by Count Kergoriou Loemaria, knight of the order of St. Louis, and member of that also which was instituted by the American congress[245]; a man who acquired great honour by his conduct in the American war when he commanded the Juno frigate. The Calypso had been sent out to protect the French trade in India, accompanied with the Astræa, Medusa, and Penelope, the last of which was lost at the Cape of Good Hope. The commodore of the whole squadron was M. St. Riveul. As this gentleman was, at that time, on board the Medusa frigate, in the road of Cochin, my friend Count Kergoriou procured from him permission for me to return to Europe in his vessel, at the expence of Louis XVI. king of France.

We directed our course towards Cape Comorin, called in the Malabar language Comari, or Canyamuri, which we sailed past two days after, on the 14th of March. The pleasure we enjoyed in this agreeable passage, and the beautiful prospects with which our eyes were gratified, can hardly be described. Having kept as close to the land as possible, the whole coast of Malabar appeared before us in the form of a green amphitheatre. At one time we discovered a district entirely covered with coconut trees, and immediately after a river winding through a delightful vale, at the bottom of which it discharged itself into the sea. In one place appeared a multitude of people employed in fishing; in another, a snow-white church bursting forth to view from amidst the thick-leaved trees. Whilst we were enjoying these delightful scenes with the early morning, a gentle breeze, which blew from the shore, perfumed the air around us with the agreeable smell wafted from the cardamom, pepper, betel, and abundance of aromatic herbs and plants. Towards noon, however, there arose a brisk gale, which sweeping the surface of the ocean, hastened the course of our Calypso, and soon carried us beyond the view of this enchanting country.

On the morning of the 18th of March we cast anchor in the harbour of Colombo, in the island of Ceylon, where we found two European ships, and one Savoyard, the owner of which was a French merchant named Le Fabre. M. Van de Graaf, brother-in-law of the often before-mentioned commandant of Cochin, M. I. G. van Angelbec, who was then governor of the Dutch possessions in the island of Ceylon, sent to meet us his three state carriages, one of which was destined for the commander of our frigate, and the other two for the rest of the officers. With this equipage we were conducted to a garden without the city, in which the governor-general, M. De Graaf, at that time resided, and where an elegant breakfast had been prepared for us. For a few days after I had sufficient time and leisure to wander about through the island, in order to make observations on the nature of the country and its productions; but I had nearly experienced the same fate as a hundred other travellers who visit both the coasts of India, and who, for want of the necessary knowledge of the languages, are obliged to put up with the erroneous information they receive from poor fishermen and other ignorant persons, which they afterwards, without reflection or proper examination, insert in their journals. Such, indeed, would have been the case with me, had I not met with people in Ceylon who understood both the Malabar and the Tamulic languages, and who were able to gratify my curiosity. My residence there was, indeed, too short to enable me to give a complete description of the island; but I can certainly communicate some useful information on the subject: and if I enlarge it by what I have learned from Knox, Sonnerat, Spilberg, Cossigny, and other travellers, I hope the reader will not think his labour lost to peruse it.

The island of Ceylon is called in the Samscred language Lanca, or Langa; also Ilam, or Salàbbam. The last word is compounded of Sal, true; and Labham, gain; consequently signifies the land which brings real gain. The island of Ceylon is undoubtedly worthy of this name, because a great many precious stones are found in it, and because pearls are fished up on its western coasts. The Samscred appellation Salàbham seems to have given rise to the corrupted name Salica, as it is called by Ptolemy, from which has been formed Ceylon. According to M. De la Tour, it lies in the latitude of 9° 15′, and the longitude of 77° and 78°. Towards the west it borders closely on the coast of Pescaria; so that it is separated from it only by the narrow strait of Manàr, where there is the celebrated bridge of Ràma, called by the Europeans Adam’s bridge. This bridge extends so far into the sea, that people can pass, in a very small vessel, to the so-called Rama’s Point, on the coast of Pescaria. Not far from the above-mentioned bridge of Rama stands the celebrated temple of Ramanacoil, in which the younger Bacchus, and also the Lingam or Phallus of Shiva, or the elder Bacchus, are preserved. This bridge is still more remarkable, because it appears from the Purana, or ancient history of India, that Ceylon by its means was first peopled, as an Indian colony went to the island along that bridge, and introduced into it the Samscred language, together with the Indian manners and customs. The names of different places, such as Moselpati, Jasnapatnam, Terlipati, Villapati, Moltupati, Malpati, Palliacur, and those of various other cities and towns, evidently shew their Samscred origin; for Pati signifies a town; Patnam, Patana, or Patan, a city; and Ur, an inhabited place.

As the wind, from whatever quarter it comes, has free room to play around this island, the air is always pure and salubrious. This advantage, and the great richness of the country gave rise formerly to the fable that it was the place of Paradise, and that the inhabitants lived to the age of 200 or 300 years. The Indians have a tradition, that this island, in consequence of a dispute between the serpent Vasughi and the god of the wind, was broken loose from the mountain Meru, the habitation of the gods, and hurled into the eastern sea, where it now lies. The Pagans believe, therefore, that this island is a part of Paradise; and this fable indeed, in ancient times, was conveyed from India to other parts of Asia. Another fable, which forms the subject of the poem called Ràmayàna, and which relates to this island also, has been mentioned before.

Not far from the city of Candia, where the king of Ceylon generally resides, is a river which flows down from one of the mountains. In the middle of this river the king has built a small palace, where he sometimes enjoys the cool air, and where are preserved the valuable gems which the rain and streams wash down from the mountains. Pearls are found in the district of Mannàr, at the western extremity of the island. This country produces the most beautiful elephants in all Asia, together with a great many deer, wild swine, and different kinds of red and yellow birds not known in Europe. It yields two crops every year, the produce of which is sufficient to feed all its inhabitants; but when the Dutch are at war with the king of Candia, they are obliged to procure their rice from Cochin on the coast of Malabar. They might raise coffee and pepper in Ceylon; but they cultivate neither of these articles, lest the price of the Malabar pepper and the Batavian coffee should be lowered, and attend merely to the culture of cinnamon, the sale of which is more profitable. They possess all the places on the sea-coast, and Colombo is their capital. Jasnapatnam, Negombo, Punta di Galle, Trinquemala, and other settlements are dependencies on its government.[246]

The Portuguese made themselves masters of this island in the year 1506; but in 1658 were expelled from it by the Dutch, A hundred years after, that is in 1759, the latter were involved in a war with the king of Candia, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. By the greatest good fortune Captain Du Flo, with a number of French adventurers, among whom were several able officers, hastened to their assistance from Pondicherry, and placed himself at the head of the Dutch troops. The war after that period assumed a different turn; the Dutch took the city of Candia, and in the year 1766 reduced the king to the necessity of signing a treaty of peace, in virtue of which he resigned the whole sea-coast, and agreed to deliver to them yearly a certain quantity of cinnamon at a very low rate. The king of Candia[247] was then suffered to remain in peaceable possession of the island. Not long before I arrived at Ceylon, Father Francis à Sancto Elisæo wrote to me from Malabar, that this prince had again quarrelled with the Hollanders, and refused to deliver the cinnamon at the price agreed on, which gave rise afterwards to another bloody war.

When the Portuguese took possession of Ceylon in the year 1506, it was governed by Abonnega Bopandar, king of Cotta, a province entirely different from Candia. This prince was married to a daughter of Tribul Pandar, who bore him a son named Parca Pandar. The latter was involved in a war with another raja or king of the island, who defeated him in the year 1579. As he could no longer defend his possessions, he fled to a place of safety, and transferred his right to the Portuguese, who then gave themselves out as his successors. He died the same year at Colombo, after he had been baptised by the name of Don Joan Parca Pandar. It is asserted by others, and in particular Arthus, that the Portuguese first visited Ceylon under the reign of Mara Ràga (properly Maha Ragia, that is, the great king), and this was undoubtedly the prince by whom Parca Pandar was defeated. Mahà Rágia had four sons, one of whom, named Darma, or rather Dherma, was illegitimate. This prince found means to put to death his legitimate brothers, and to get possession of the crown alone; but he died by poison, and was succeeded by Vimala Dherma Suryada, who was afterwards baptised at Goa under the name of Don Joan di Austria.

As this prince had adopted the Christian religion, the Portuguese imagined that he would readily permit them to carry as much cinnamon and as many precious stones from the island as they might think proper; but they were disappointed in their expectation, for Vimala Dherma Sùryada expelled them all from his states, and was absolutely determined that they should not gain the superiority at Cotta or Candia. A daughter of Parca Pandar, who had also embraced Christianity, and had at baptism been named Catharina, was still in life, but detained a prisoner in the fortress of Mannar. A certain Portuguese gentleman, named Don Pietro Lopez de Sousa, married this princess; caused himself afterward to be proclaimed king of Candia, and declared war against the lawful sovereign, Vimala Dherma Suryada, or Don Joan di Austria. The latter, however, being a brave and enterprising man, pursued such prudent measures that his antagonist Don Lopez was so completely defeated in a decisive battle that he was obliged to give up the contest. After his death he married Catharina the widow, by whom he had two sons.

This sovereign extended his dominion over the whole of Ceylon, and caused a great many churches, which still remain, to be built in the interior parts of the country. His object in erecting them, no doubt, was to conciliate the affection of the Christians; to give employment to his subjects, and to have a decent pretence for laying them under contribution. That his attachment to religion was not very sincere, appears, in particular, from this circumstance, that he never completely finished or endowed any of these churches, so that they have remained poor to this day.

After the death of this prince, his spouse Catharina resigned the government, and in the year 1604 married Henar Pandar, who reigned under the Pagan name of Camapadi Mahadakshin, and had by her a great many children.

He was succeeded in 1632 by his son Ragiasinba, called also Mahasorùba, or Sinhamaharagia, who, in the year 1644, received the Dutch with great friendship; but did not give up to them the Portuguese settlements, of which they never obtained complete possession till the year 1658.

The successor of this king was Sishamaharagia, who assumed the government in 1680, and had under his dominion Coletur as well as Candia.

The names of the above-mentioned kings of Ceylon are entirely Samscredamic, and have been corrupted by Spilberg, as well as Anquetil du Perron, the Dutch and the Portuguese, the first conquerors of the island. Vimala, for example, signifies great; Dherma is the Samscred name of the deity Budha; and Surya signifies the sun. Vimala Dherma Surya signifies, therefore, the great king Dherma, refulgent like the sun; Sinhamaharagia signifies the lion-great king; for this appellation is compounded of three Samscred words, Sinha a lion, Maha great, and Ragia a king. Mahàsorùba implies as much as the great prince; and Campadi Mahàdakshin signifies Cupid the great king of the eastern districts. It may be readily perceived, that these are assumed and not family names. We are told by Pliny, in his Natural History[248], that, in his time, a Rachia or king of this island sent an embassy to Rome. We are informed also by St. Ambrose, that, in his time, four kings reigned in that island, one of whom was called Mahàràgia, or the great king. It appears from these and other circumstances, that this island, as is the case in Malabar, was divided among several petty princes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of one general head.

Among the deities of the inhabitants of Ceylon, we find also Gannèsha; but he is represented here with goat’s feet; whereas the other Indians represent him under the human form, except the addition of an elephant’s trunk. The principal deity, however, worshipped in this island, is Budha, or Godama, a son of Maia and Mercury, or Hermes, to whom they have dedicated not only a great number of trees, but also Adam’s Peak, called in the Samscred language Salmala, which is the highest mountain in the island, and from which Budha is said to have ascended to heaven after he had transformed himself into 999 different shapes. The worship of this deity was introduced into Ceylon about forty years after the birth of Christ; and about the same time a violent dispute took place between the Brahmans and the Budhists, the result of which was, that the latter, because they would not acknowledge Vishnu and Shiva as gods, were expelled from India by their opponents. The Budhists were originally Pagan monks of the feet of Sanyasi, who led a life of contemplation; renounced all property; took an oath of chastity and poverty, and lived together in common. They are descended from the ancient Samanæi, who are exceedingly well characterised in the writings of Strabo, Porphyrius, Arrian, and Clemens of Alexandria. They never marry, and support themselves by begging. By these Budhists the religion of the Indians was transplanted to Pegu, Siam, and China, as the Peguans and the Chinese themselves acknowledge. In Pegu, Budha is worshipped in the same manner as in Ceylon; and the Talapoins, his priests, are real descendants from the Budhists of Ceylon. The inhabitants of Pegu call Budha sometimes Gaudama, and sometimes Samonacodam. Soma signifies the moon, and Codam a god. By this appellation, therefore, they give to understand, that they consider Budha as a deity created by the moon; for the nymph Rohini was the favourite of the lunar god, and from these two Budha derived his existence.

Father Constantinus of Afkali, a missionary of the Capuchin order, in his short account of Nepal, has given a description of the customs of those Budhists who reside in Nepal and Thibet, where they are far more numerous than any where else[249]. The Grand Lama of Thibet is the real head of this sect. When the Budhists of Ceylon appear in public, on solemn occasions, they always walk two and two; and their bishop, or chief, with a sceptre in his hand, rides on an elephant. They believe not only in the transmigration of the soul, but in the immortality of the spiritual part of man; and entertain an opinion, that after it has passed in succession through a sufficient number of bodies, it is received into the Nimban, that is, eternity. The other priests of Ceylon, destined for the service of Gannèsha, are called Gones. The common people worship also Ciadhàrva, or Shastava, the avenger of sin, an idol of a most horrid appearance, which holds in its hand a sword.

A custom prevails in Ceylon, that several brothers may have one wife in common. The children she brings forth belong to them all; nor can the elder brother claim any preference of right. Many of the inhabitants of Ceylon have only one wife; others maintain several. In this respect there is no fixed law or precise regulation; but adultery in all cases is punished. The Brahmans, like us, make a distinction between the different degrees of consanguinity, but they admit of a man marrying two sisters. Aunts and nephews are not allowed to intermarry; but a man may take to wife the daughter of his father’s sister, or the daughter of his own sister. In all other cases they consider marriage between relations as incest; and those guilty of this crime are punished either by the loss of the limb which has committed the offence, or at any rate expelled from their cast. The inhabitants of Ceylon, however, are not patterns of chastity; and it may be clearly perceived that corruption of morals is daily increasing among them.

The principal festival of Budha is celebrated at the commencement of the new year, in the month of March, which generally falls on the 27th, 28th, or 29th. The division of the year in Ceylon is the same as that usual in Malabar and among the Tamulians.

In Ceylon, as well as in Pegu and Thibet, the Budhists may be said to have very limited power. They are the preceptors and tutors of the sovereign princes of the country, who consequently give themselves up to their direction; consult them upon every occasion, and afford them every kind of support and protection. The policy of this practice produces the utmost benefit to the state. When princes pay honour to the priesthood, and unite with it to promote the same ends, the tranquillity of their dominions is never interrupted. In every part of the globe, the people, who look up to the example of their sovereigns, will not fail to imitate them; and the consequence will be, respect for religion, and fidelity towards their princes; and on the union of these two the welfare of a state depends.