The population of Bolivia is composed of three separate social classes, the Bolivians of European ancestry, the Indians, and the mestizos, or cholos, of mixed European and Indian origin. The white race, chiefly of Spanish blood, inherits many qualities of the parent nation, though modified by centuries of isolation from Spain. When the fabulous wealth of Potosí attracted thousands of Spaniards to Alto Peru during the first century of colonial rule, many of the noblest families of Europe were represented in the rapidly increasing populations of Potosí, Oruro, and other rich mining centres; and so important were the interests of his Catholic majesty in this part of the royal domain that the most distinguished grandees of the realm were sent to take charge of colonial affairs, to supervise the coinage in the colonial mint, and to guard against any evasion of the royal prerogatives. The quarrel which began early between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados, and which developed into a struggle between Criollos and Spaniards, was sustained, on the part of the patriotic Criollos, by men in whose veins flowed the best blood of Spain. Their love for their native land was stronger than their allegiance to a government which was unjust and oppressive, and they fought for and obtained their independence. Their descendants are the people who control the politics and society of Bolivia to-day. They are in the minority so far as population is concerned, a condition which exists in all Spanish-American countries. A similar state of affairs governed the population of the United States before the great tide of immigration brought millions of Europeans to its shores, and the native Indians were thus reduced to the minority. But, unlike the North American Indians who were driven westward by the advancing multitude, until crowded almost out of sight in a small corner of their former vast territory, the Indians of Bolivia still remain undisturbed in the haunts of their ancestors, whether of the Andean plateau, the plains of Mojos, or the river banks of Guarany. They have always been too useful to the white man of these regions to be allowed to vanish out of sight, and too submissive to constitute the powerful menace to civilization which the Iroquois and the Apache proved to the earlier inhabitants of North America. With the exception of a few scattered tribes, the Indians of Bolivia are more or less civilized, and they form an important factor of the communities, not only as servants, but as contributors to the development of the native industries, in a primitive way, but usefully and creditably. A foreign traveller in Bolivia cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that the white man here thoroughly understands his primitive protégé, and that the Indians, as a whole, receive at the hands of the governing race as much consideration as the ignorant poor of any land receive from those who, by inherited or acquired power, hold over their less competent fellowmen the rights of authority. The laws of Bolivia provide for the welfare of the Indians in a liberal manner, and the best means of promoting their mental and moral development is at present occupying the attention of the leading legislators of the country. The question as to what should be the political responsibility of a primitive people, untrained in independent thought and action, is not easily disposed of, and the blunders which have been committed by the most enlightened of nations in this respect prove how important is the problem presented. In Bolivia the Indian has evolved slowly but surely under the influence of civilization, and he shows an awakened spirit of independence as compared with his ancestors, who merely reflected the will of their chief. Under Spanish rule, the Indian, though nominally recognized as possessing certain individual rights, was in reality seldom free to exercise them; but since the inauguration of the republic the law governing his rights has not been so completely a dead letter in effect. He is still a child in mental and moral growth, but he is progressing under the benign influence of peace and security.

The Indians of Bolivia are usually classified according to their geographical distribution. The Andean tribes are divided into the Peruvian branch—which includes Aymará and Quichua—and the North Andean, composed of many nations, among others the Yuracarés, Mosetenes, Tacanas, Araonas, Cavineños, Chunchos, Guayaros, Lecos, and Apolistas, that inhabit the eastern serranias of the northern Andes and the plains of the Territorio de Colonias, the department of La Paz, and El Beni. The Pampean tribes are divided into the Mojeña and the Chiquitana branches, and inhabit the great plains of eastern Bolivia in the provinces of Mojos and Chiquitos, which extend from the foothills of the Andes to the Brazilian border. The third division is called the Guaranic, and is sub-divided into the Guaraya and Chiriguana branches apparently closely related to the Guarany tribes of Paraguay; they occupy the territory included in the northern, central, and southern Chaco. The above divisions are made in accordance with the scientific studies and investigations of D’Orbigny who devoted many years to the subject. The Aymará Indians, as is generally known, occupy the territory surrounding Lake Titicaca, including the southern part of the department of La Paz and all the department of Oruro; the provinces are named after the various tribes, Omasuyos, Pacajes, Sicasicas, Larecajas, Carangas, and Yungas. To the north and northwest their territory adjoins that of the Quichuas of Cuzco, their southern and southeastern neighbors are the Quichuas, or Charcas, of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, and Potosí; to the east and northeast are the Tacanas, Apolistas, and Mosetenes, all popularly called Chunchos; while to the southwest the Aymará territory borders that of the Chinchas of Tarapacá. The Aymará Indian of the present day is a strong, muscular native of the highlands, of medium height, of bronze complexion, varying from the color of the North American redskin to the darker brown of more tropical types, possessing well-defined features which remind one of the Japanese race by the slant of the eyes and the high cheekbones. They are a reticent people and are generally industrious and sober, excepting on the occasion of a grand fiesta, when they display characteristics hardly recognizable in the Indian of everyday conditions. They are extremely religious, and devoted to the services of the Church; at any hour of the day an Indian may be found kneeling before the altar of the virgin or of one of the saints in the churches of the various towns. It is the beautiful custom of the country to keep the doors of the churches always open, and many an Indian leaves his little drove of llamas as he enters a town and goes to say his prayers and to feast his eyes on the images and pictures of the sacred place. Indian women with their babies swung on their backs, kneel on the floor of the church and forget all their troubles in contemplation of the holy symbols. Children they seem in all but physical growth, after centuries of contact with civilization. Limited opportunity may be responsible to some extent, but natural conditions govern all primitive people, and they are neither benefited nor made happy by being crowded into a path of progress opened for them by the too eager white man, who demands that they assimilate at once the civilization which his own race has achieved only after thousands of years of progressive culture. Indian colleges and Indian missions may aid in a limited way to develop a primitive race, but important results are not achieved within a few short generations. Experiments in the Indian school established by the United States government at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, prove this to be true of the North American Indian, as it is of his primitive brother in South America. Whether the Aymará race has passed its zenith in culture and is now at a period corresponding to “second childhood,” or whether it is still in the dawn of development, the actual condition is that of a dependent people, as regards intellectual and moral responsibility.

The foreigner, upon arriving in Bolivia, is immediately interested in the picturesque spectacle presented by the Indian of the Titicaca plateau. His poncho and cap are woven of the most gorgeous colors, and the brighter their reds, greens, and yellows, the better the wearer is pleased. The Aymarás make their own dyes, which are entirely of vegetable composition, and it is remarkable to what an extent they have developed their knowledge of the many herbs which are useful for this purpose. The art of weaving all kinds of blankets and ponchos is known to both the Aymará and Quichua tribes, who blend the colors in a great many combinations, and yet use no other loom than that which they make by driving four stakes in the ground, or by means of an apparatus of clumsy and primitive manufacture, which was introduced by the Spaniards at the time of the conquest. They spin the wool of the llama, the alpaca, and the vicuña, and some of the ponchos which they make are of exquisite workmanship, woven of vicuña and silk. In the province of Pacajes especially the Indians make excellent cloth, and here they weave the bayeta, a black and white mixture of which they make their own clothes, the men wearing over this sombre color the picturesque poncho, while the women appear in darker wraps, adorned with brightly woven borders.

The Quichua Indians of Bolivia, sometimes called the Charcas, are easily distinguished from the Aymarás in general appearance and character. Their features are less rugged and they are gentler in disposition. They are more submissive than the Aymarás, and have a sunnier temperament, the reflection of milder skies. In Potosí they dress to-day as they did in the days of Pizarro, and the men still wear the casques introduced by the conquerors in the sixteenth century. The women wear high-heeled wooden shoes, or sandals, which they fasten by straps drawn between the toes and buckled with large silver buckles made in the design of the coat of arms of Charles V. Their ornaments, called topos, are of silver, some of them in the design of the double-headed eagle, while others are great disks, hammered and cut out in many curious figures. The spoon is a favorite form for a topo, which serves the double purpose of ornament and shawl pin, and may also be used in taking food. It is customary to have the bowl of the spoon carved in some design.

The fiestas of the Aymarás and the Quichuas vary little, to all appearance, both being marked by religious observances of more or less recognizable solemnity, and both invariably terminate in a grand revel. There are special feasts in different localities which are not held in any other, such as the anniversary of the alacitas, when miniature figures of every description are sold at the place of celebration. It is remarkable to what perfection the art of making these objects has been developed, some of the tiny dishes, furniture, and other articles being of infinitesimal size, yet without a flaw. A tray, containing bottle, tumbler, and wineglass, all of wood, made entirely by hand, may be passed through a finger ring, and an entire set of furniture may be put into a liqueur glass. The Indians of Sucre and Potosí are very expert in miniature work. The tiny dolls, which are much appreciated by travellers who visit Sucre, are no larger than a mosquito, yet when examined under a magnifying glass they are seen to be perfectly made and dressed in the latest fashion. The miniature souvenirs most sought after by visitors to Potosí are the tiny silver tea and coffee sets, which are marvels of workmanship.

The primitive races of Bolivia show a particular aptitude for certain industries. Not only are the Aymarás and the Quichuas skilled in weaving and in making pottery, but the Mojos and the Chiquitos have shown themselves competent workmen in various primitive manufactures. They weave cotton cloth, sheets, towels, hammocks, and other articles, which are so durable that they last an incredible length of time. While these simple children of Nature have not been stimulated to remarkable progress, they have established in the country many native industries of importance and value.

Of the total Indian population of Bolivia, which is estimated at nine hundred thousand, about eight hundred and fifty thousand are subject to the laws of the country, the remaining fifty thousand, who inhabit the remote forests of the extreme north and a part of the Chaco, being uncivilized. According to statistics collected by the Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica, the gradual disappearance of the primitive races has been noted for a considerable length of time. Since 1878 the Indians have died at an increasing rate from plague and alcoholism, the number of births by no means covering the mortality. At present they are about the same in number as they were half a century ago, while the white race and the mestizos have notably increased. It appears to be universally the case that a primitive people gradually vanishes when surrounded by conditions of advanced civilization. The Indian is not adaptive, and seems to be ill fitted for rapid progress. In Bolivia, as in other countries, all attempts to induce him to throw aside the antiquated implements of toil used by his ancestors have proved futile, and it would be ludicrous, if it were not pathetic, to see the laborious methods of tilling the soil which the Indian follows. Neither by threats nor by promises can he be led to make his task easier by using modern tools.

On the northern frontier and in the southern Chaco the uncivilized tribes have been visited from time to time by the Catholic missionaries, and in all the frontier provinces missions have been established for the civilization and Christian teaching of these tribes. Many faithful teachers have spent the greater part of their lives in these remote forests, and have accomplished a great deal in the work of civilizing the Indians. The missionary work of Bishop Armentia was devoted chiefly to the civilization of the North Andean tribes of the Madre de Dios region, the territory of the Indians popularly called Chunchos, though known under the names of Tacanas, Guarayos, Araonas, Cavinas, Mosetenes, and others. The mission of Covendo, in the country of the Mosetenes, has been the centre of widespread efforts in behalf of the natives, and other settlements of similar character have been established in various localities. Dr. Armentia says the chief of the Araona tribes are not elected, but chosen according to the number of their sons and relatives, the Indian without family being made the slave of his chief. It seems base ingratitude that the Indian who has been forced to deny himself a wife because of the polygamous proclivities of his chief should have insult added to injury by being made the humblest servant of his lucky rival on that very account. It is the irony of fate. The Araonas are excellent hunters, and their method of catching the tapir especially is unique. This animal suffers greatly from the attacks of garrapatas, or ticks, and its mode of getting rid of the pest is by attracting the chuvi, a bird of the eagle species, which is very fond of the garrapata as a food. The tapir makes a hissing sound very like the whistling note of the chuvi, and when the latter whistles, the tapir responds and runs in the direction from which the sound proceeds, eager to have the chuvi rid it of the garrapatas; the Indian has learned to imitate the chuvi and thus he secures his game.

The Indians of the Chaco, the Chiriguanos, Tobas, Chorotis, Tapietes, and others, differ greatly in character and customs from the North Andean tribes. The Chiriguanos, who have lived for centuries in the vicinity of civilized communities, cannot be counted as entirely uncivilized Indians. The Tobas, though uncivilized, are more or less influenced in their customs by contact with civilized people, as they are frequently employed on the estates of Tarija and in Argentina. The Chorotis and Tapietes are savages. Colonel Trigo, in his recent report on the subject, says all the savage tribes of the Chaco have similar customs and modes of life, with very slight differences. Good relations between tribes are maintained with astute diplomacy. Any offence against the rights of the tribe is punished by war. The law of force is supreme. Terror maintains mutual respect. Vengeance is a sacred dogma. The government is paternal. These Indians are fond of adornment, and paint and tattoo themselves with vegetable dyes. The Chorotis insert round blocks of wood in the lobes of the ears, increasing the size gradually until these ornaments are several inches in diameter. The Tapietes perforate the lower lip and adorn it by inserting a large round block. Marriages are made by the savages without other formality than proof of mutual love, which is shown by digging the fingernails into each others’ faces, a ceremony highly esteemed. Wives mourn for their husbands by cutting off their hair and by weeping at a certain hour every day until it grows out again. A widow will not marry again until her hair has grown long.

In addition to the white race and the Indians, Bolivia has a third element in its population, the mestizo, or cholo, a mixed race derived from the union of Spaniard and Indian. The cholos constitute a people quite distinct from the other two, though related to both. The origin of this mixed race is explained by the conditions which governed the Spanish-American, in common with the North American, colonies in the early history of their settlement. In North America, women from the mother country were sent out to the colonies to become the wives of the settlers, but the Spanish government did not take this means of peopling its American possessions; and many of the colonists married native Indian women, in frequent instances forming happy alliances, especially with the Aymarás and Quichuas, who were advanced in primitive culture.

The cholos of the better class are good citizens, excellent soldiers, and possess the quick intellect of the Spaniard, in combination with the mechanical ability of the Indian. They are capable of receiving the highest industrial training, and their handiwork compares favorably with the best European productions, whenever they have an opportunity to develop their skill. They are light-hearted and careless, very fond of gayety, and never so happy as when celebrating one of their numerous fiestas. The women, called cholas, are extremely vain and greatly devoted to the charms of dress, their costumes being at times the ne plus ultra of adornment. A chola belle of La Paz wears at least a dozen starched white petticoats, embroidered halfway to the waist, and over these a red, green, blue, or yellow velvet skirt which reaches to the calf of the leg, the petticoats showing their beruffled edges beneath. Two bright-colored shawls are worn, coquettishly pinned, one on the right shoulder and the other on the left; a Panamá hat rather mars the effectiveness of the costume; but a particularly attractive feature is the dressing of the feet, which are encased in pink, blue, or yellow stockings and high shoes, with French heels, the tops of which are perforated in exquisite patterns to show the pretty stockings underneath. The chola of each city has distinguishing characteristics and dress, though all costumes are a modified copy of the one just described. A chola is sometimes a very fascinating bit of femininity, and many of them are both pretty and quick-witted. The men are successful tradesmen, and, altogether, the cholo race constitutes an important part of the business community. They have not the Spaniard’s traditional aversion to trade, and, in consequence, they supply what would otherwise be a serious deficiency in industrial and manufacturing enterprise.

The people of Bolivia are kind and hospitable to foreigners, and have a pleasant welcome for all who visit their country. It is necessary to spend some time in their midst, in order to become acquainted with their manners and customs and to know their many admirable qualities.

Transcriber’s Notes:

1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently.

2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the original.

3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original.

4. Where appropriate, the original spelling has been retained.